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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

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http://www.archive.org/details/classicalmanuaJeOObairrich 


THE 


CLASSICAL    MANUAL: 

AN    EPITOME    OF 

ANCIENT  GEOGRAPHY, 

GREEK  AND  ROMAN  MYTHOLOGY, 

ANTIQUITIES, 

AND   CHRONOLOGY. 

CHIEFLY  INTENDED  FOR  THE  USB  OF  SCHOOLS. 


OOMPIIEl)    ?Y 

JAMES   S.  S.  BAIRD, 

TRINITY    COLLEGE,    DUBLIN, 

ASSISTANT    CLASSICAL    MASTER,    KING'S    SCHOOL, 

GLOUCESTER. 

OF  THr     " 

UN/VERSITY 

BLANC  HARD    AND    LEA. 

1801. 


REY    THOMAS  EVANS,   D.D. 

WKAD    MASTER    OF    KING'S    SCHOOL,    GLOUCESTER, 

T  H  T  S    L  I  T  T  L  E    W  0  R  K 

V    HESPECTPULLY  DEDICATEI*, 

BT 

HIS    OBLIGED    AND    FAITHFUL    SERVANT, 

JAMES  S.  S.  BAIRD. 


m 


1 539oG 


PREFACE. 


Many  excellent  works  have  recently  issued  from  the 
press,  which,  cither  separately  or  in  the  form  of  diction- 
aries, treat  of  the  subjects  of  the  following  pages :  and  yet 
the  want  of  an  Epitome  has  been  recognized,  which  would 
contain,  in  the  compass  of  a  single  volume,  of  small  size 
and  moderate  price,  as  much  information  upon  such  points 
as  is  calculated  to  elucidate  the  Greek  and  Roman  authors 
usually  read  in  the  junior  forms  of  our  schools.  It  has 
been  the  object  of  the  compiler  of  the  present  manual  to 
supply  this  deficiency  by  introducing  into  it  such  details 
as  are  most  likely  to  be  useful  (indeed  much  of  which  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  the  classical  student)  in  so  small 
a  space  as  to  admit  of  its  being  thoroughly  mastered  and 
retained.  Although  at  first  the  requirements  of  junior 
forms  were  chiefly  contemplated,  yet  in  the  progress  of  the 
work  so  much  additional  matter  has  been  supplied  as,  it  is 
hoped,  will  render  it  not  unacceptable  to  more  advanced 
students. 

In  the  compilation,  the  best  and  most  recent  authorities 
have  been  consulted,  but  particular  obligations  must  be 
.acknowledged  to  the  following  works :  Dr.  William  Smith's 
1*  (y) 


VI  PREFACE. 

Dictionaries  of  ^^  Greek  and  Eoman  Mythology  and  Bio- 
graphy," "  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities/'  and  "  Classical 
Dictionary ;''  the  Rev.  T.  K.  Arnold's  editions  of  the 
"  Handbook  of  Ancient  Geography  and  History/'  by  W. 
Ptitz,  and  the  "  Handbooks  of  Greek  and  Roman  Anti- 
quities/' by  Dr.  Bojesen.  The  editor's  best  thanks  are 
also  due  to  the  Rev.  H.  Haines,  M.A.,  Second  Master  of 
the  King's  School,  Gloucester,  for  his  kind  supervision  of 
these  pages  while  passing  through  the  press,  and  also  for 
the  valuable  assistance  he  has  afforded  in  several  parts  of 
the  work. 

J.  S.  S.  B. 

Qlottoester,  January,  1852. 


CONTENTS. 


GEOGRAPHY. 

EUROPE. 

Page 
CouNTBiES,  Seas,  Gulfs,   Straits,  Rivers,   Mountains,  Lakes, 

Islands 13,  14 

Hispania. — Boundaries,  Mountains,  Rivers,  Promontories, 

Divisions,  Tribes 15 

Tarraconensis,  Lusi  tania.  Bee  tica.     Islands....  16 

Gallia.     Boundaries,  Mountains,  Rivers,  Lake,  Divisions..  17 

Narbonensis ib. 

Aquitania,  Lugdunensis 18 

Gallia  Bel  gica.     Tribes,  Islands 19 

Germania.  —  Boundari'es,    Mountains,    Rivers,   Divisions, 

Tribes 20 

Vindelicia,   Rhcetia,  Noricum,  Pannonia,  Illyri- 
cum.  —  Vindelicia.      Boundaries,     Rivers,     Tribes, 

Towns 21 

Rliaetia.     Boundaries,  Rivers,  Tribes ib. 

Noricum.     Boundaries ib. 

Rivers,  Towns 22 

Pannonia.       Boundaries,    Rivers,     Lakes,     Divisions, 

Towns ib. 

Illyricum.     Boundaries,  Mountains,  Divisions ib. 

Towns,  Islands 23 

Italia.  —  Boundaries,  Gulfs,  Strait,  Mountains ib. 

Rivers,  Lakes 24 

Capes,  Divisions 25 

Liguria,  Gallia  Ci  sal  pin  a  or  To  gat  a ib. 

Venetia,  Carni,  Histria,  Etruria ...  26 

Umbria,  Picenum,  Sabinum  27 

Latium,  Samnium 28 

Campania,  Apulia 29 

Lucania,   Bruttium 30 

Islands:   Si  cilia ib, 

Moesia. — Boundaries,  Divisions,  Tribes,  Rivers,  Towns....  31 

Dacia. — Boundaries,  Rivers,  Tribes 32 

Sarmatia.  —  Boundaries,  Tribes,  Towns ib. 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 

Macedonia.  — Boundaries 32 

Gulfs,  Mountains,  Rivers,  Divisions,  Cities  33 

Illyris  Grseca ib. 

Thracia. — Boundaries,  Straits,  &c..  Mountains,  Rivers,  Cities  34 

Grsecia.  —  Boundaries ib. 

Gulfs,  Strait,  Mountains,  Rivers 35,  36 

Lakes,  Promontories,  Divisions 37 

Thessalia ib. 

Epirus,  Acarnania,  ^tolia,  Doris,  Locris 38 

Phocis,  Boeotia 39 

Attica,  Megaris  (Peloponnesus),  Achaia,  Elis......  40 

Messenia,  Laconia,  Argolis 41 

Arcadia,  Corinthia,  Sicyonia ,..  42 

Greek  Islands.  —  In  the  Ionian  and  ^Egean  Seas 43 

Britannia  or  Albion. — Boundaries^  Rivers,  Promontories, 

Divisions 44 

Tribes,  Towns,  Islands 45 

ASIA. 

Countries,  Mountains,  Seas  and  Gulfs,  Rivers,  Islands 46,  47 

Asia  Minor.  —  Boundaries,  Gulfs,  Mountains,  Rivers 47 

Lake,  Promontories,  Divisions 48 

Bithynia  , ib. 

Paplilagonia,  Pontus,  Mysia,  Lydia  or  Mseonia  49 

Caria,  Lycia,  Pamphylia,  Cilicia 50 

Phrygia,    Galatia,   Cappadocia,  the    Six    Dorian 

States,  the  Twelve  Ionian  States 51 

^tolian  League,  ''Seven  Churches  of  Asia" 52 

Island  :  Cyprus ib. 

Syria,  Palsestina.  —  Boundaries,  Mountains,  Rivers ib. 

Divisions:  Syria,  Phoenicia,  Palsestina  or  Judaea. 

Tribes 53 

Divisions:  Galilee,  Samaria,  Judoea 54 

Perse  a  and  Batansea,  the  Cities  of  Refuge,  Seven 

Heathen  Nations 55 

Arabia.  — Boundaries ib. 

Mountains,  Divisions,  Tribes,  &c 56 

Countries  between  Pontus  Euxinus  and  Hyrcanum 
Mare. — Sarmatia  Asiatica,  Colchis  or  ^a,  Iberia  ib. 

Albania 57 

Armenia  Propria  vel  Major. — Boundaries,  Mountains, 

Rivers,  Lake,  Towns ib. 

Mesopotamia ib. 

River,  Divisions,  Towns 58 

Babylonia  and  Chaldsea. — Boundaries ib. 

Countries  East  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris:  — 

Assyria,  Media,  Susiana  or  Susis 59 

Persia  or  Persis 60 


CONTENTS.  IX 

Countries  South  of  the  Oxus:  — 

Hyrcania,  Partliia,  Aria,   Bactriana GO 

Car  mania,   Gedrosia 61 

Countries  North  of  the  Oxus:  — 

Sogdiana,  Scythia ib. 

India.  — 

Boundaries,  Rivers,  Divisions,  Towns,  &c.,  Islands,  &c.     62 

AFRICA. 

Boundaries,  Bays,  Strait,  Rivers,  Lakes 63 

iEgyptus. — Boundaries,  Divisions,  ^gyptus  Inferior  or 

Delta,  Heptanomis 64 

^gyptus  Superior  vel  Thebais 65 

Northern  Coasts  of  Africa. — Divisions ib. 

Libya,  Tripolitana,  Africa  Propria 66 

Numidia,  Mauritania,  Islands 67 

MYTHOLOGY. 

The  Twelve    Olympian    or  National  Deities    of  the 

Greeks  and  Romans 68-70 

Minor  Deities 70-75 

Heroes,  Mythical  Persons,  &c 75-84 

EARLY  GRECIAN  LEGENDS,  &c. 

The  Argonautic  Expedition 85 

Early  Legends  relating  to  Thebes 86 

Story  of  (Edipus  and  War  of  the  Seven  against  Thebes  86,  87 

Early  Kings  of  Troy 88 

Legend  of  the  Trojan  War 89,  91 

Grecian  Heroes,  &c.,  connected  with  the  Trojan  War  91-94 
Trojan  Heroes,  &c 95-97 

GREEK    ANTIQUITIES. 

Divisions  of  the  Inhabitants  of  Attica  and  Sparta     98 
Magistrates:  — 

Archons,  their  number,  functions,  &c 98,  99 

Inferior  Magistrates 99 

Ephori ib. 

Assemblies. — The  General  Assembly,   The  Senate  of  the 
Five  Hundred 100 

Gerousia,  the  Senate  at  Sparta 101 

Judges  and  Courts  of  .Justice. — The  Court  of  Areopagus    ib. 

The  Heliasts.     The  Dieetetae.     The  Forty ib. 

Court  of  the  Ephctie.      Amphictyones 102 

Punishments. — Ostracism,  AtimiM,  &c 102,  103 

Temples,  Priests,  and  Sacrifices 103,  104 

Oracles.  —  Zeus  at  Dodona.     Apollo  at  Delphi 104,105 

Other  Chief  Oracles :  of  Zeus  ;  of  Apollo  ;  of  Heroes...   105 


X  CONTENTS. 

Festivals. — Adonia,    Anthesteria,    Dionysia,    Eleusinia, 

&c lOG-108 

Public  Games. — Principal  Exercises  used  in 108,109 

The  Four  National  Games.     Olympic  Games 109 

Pythian  Games.     Nemean  Games,     Isthmian  Games....   110 
Military  Affairs.  —  Divisions  of  the  Army  and  Classes  of 

Soldiers Ill 

Arms  (defensive  and  offensive) ib. 

Officers.     Minor  Divisions  of  the  Army 112 

Naval  Affairs. — Ships  of  Burden  ;  War  Galleys;  Principal 

parts  of  the  vessel,  &c.     Tackling,  &c 113 

Naval  officers,  &c 114 

Private  Life  of  the  Greeks. — Meals,  Dress,  Funerals  114-116 
The  Greek  Theatre 116,117 

ROMAN    ANTIQUITIES. 

Divisions  of  the  Inhabitants  of  the  Roman  Empire; 

Patricii,  Plebei 118 

Equites,     Nobiles,     Ignobiles,    Optimates,    Populares, 

Servi,  &c 119 

The  Senate. — Members,  Proceedings,  &c 119,120 

Assemblies. — Comitia  Curiata,  Comitia  Centuriata 121 

Comitia  Tributa 122 

Magistrates  and  Chief  Public  Officers: — ■ 

^diles,  Apparitores ib. 

Censores,  Consules,  Curatores 123 

Dictator,  Proefectus,  Praetor 124 

Pro-Consul,    Procurator,   Pro-Preetor,   Qusestores,   Tri- 

buni 125,126 

Judicial  Proceedings,  Punishments 126 

Priests.  —  Pontifices,  Augures  or  Auspices 127 

Fetiales,  Haruspices,  Decemviri,  Curiones,  Rex  Sacrifi- 

culus,  Flamines,  Virgines  Vestales 128 

Salii,  Luperci,  Galli,  Fratres  Arvales 129 

Prayers,  Sacrifices,  Festivals 129,130 

Games.  —  Ludi  Circenses,  Gladiatorii 13  i 

Classes  of  Gladiators,  Scenic,  or  Stage  Plays,  Theatres 1?2 

Military  Affairs.  —  Conscription  and  Period  of  Service, 

Pay,  &c 133,  134 

Divisions  of  the  Army ;  Arms 134,135 

Officers:   Legati,  Tribuni,  Centuriones ;  Encampment...   135 

Order  of  Battle,  Standards,  Military  Engines 136 

Military    Rewards    and    Punishments,    Triumph,    Ova- 
tion    136,  137 

Naval  Affairs 137 

Private  Life  of  the  Romans. —Dress 138,139 

Meals,  &c 139,140 


CONTENTS.  xi 

Private  Houses,  Baths,  Amusements 140,  141 

Funerals 142 

Names,  and  their  abbreviations 143 


ANCIENT  GREEK  WRITERS. 

Poets.  — Epic,  Tragic 144 

Comic,  Lyric 145 

Pastoral 146 

Prose  Writers.  —  Historians ..    146,147 

Orators,  Medical  AVriters 147,  148 

Mathematicians,  Geographers,  Fabulist 149 

Satiric  Writer,  Critic,  Philosophers 150,  151 

ANCIENT    ROMAN     WRITERS. 

Poets.  — Epic 152 

Elegiac,  Lyrie  163 

Tragic,  Comic,  Didactic.     Satirists 154 

Epigrammatist,  Fabulist 155 

Prose  Writers.  —  Historians ib. 

Orator,  &c 156 

Epistolary  Writers.     Writers  on  Philosophical  Subjects, 

Natural  History 157 

Agriculture,    Architecture,    Medicine,    Grammar    and 

Criticism 158 

SCHOOLS  OF  ANCIENT  PHILOSOPHY. 

The  Ionic  School 159 

The  Italic  School ib. 

TOPOGRAPHY   of   ATHENS 160,161 

ROME  162-164 

GREEK  AND  ROMAN  DIVISION  of  TIME 165-167 

MISCELLANEA. 

Hills  of  Rome,  Kings  of  Rome : 168 

Twelve  Caesars,  Seven  Wonders  of  the  World,  Seven  Sages 

of  Greece 169 

Twelve  Labours  of  Hercules,  Nine  Muses,  Three  Graces 170 

Three  Horge,  Three  Fates,  Three  Furies,  Three  Judges  of 

Hell,  Five  Rivers  of  Hell 171 

The  Winds 172 

ROMAN  CALENDAR 172,  173 

GREEK  CHRONOLOGY 174-180 

ROMAN  CHRONOLOGY 181-187 

INDEX 189 


ABBREVIATIONS, 

Cap.  =  Capital. 

L.  =  Lacus,  Lake. 

Mts.  =  Mountains. 

Prom.  =  Promontorium. 

R.  =  River. 

G.  =  Gulf. 

O.  T.  =  Old  Testament 


(W> 


GEOGRAPHY. 


EUROPE. 

COUNTRIES. — Hispania,  Spain;  Lusitania,  Portugal; 
Gallia,  Fraiice  and  West  of  Switzerland;  German! a, 
Germany;  Cimbrica  Chersonesus,  Denmark;  Scan- 
dinavia, Norway  and  Sweden;  Sarmatia  Europsea, 
Russia  and  Poland;  Rhaetia,  East  part  of  Switzerland  ^wdi 
the  Tyrol;  Vindelicia,  Bavaria  S.  of  Danube;  Panno- 
nia,  Hungary ;  Illy ri cum,  Illyris,  Illyrica,  Croatia^ 
Dalmatia,  and  part  of  Turkey;  Italia,  Italy;  Grgecia, 
Greece^  and  part  of  Albania  and  Roumelia  in  Turkey; 
Macedonia,  Western  part  of  Roumelia  ;  T  h  r  a  c  i  a.  East- 
ern part  of  Roumelia;  Moesia,  Servia  and  Bulgaria; 
Dacia,  Transylvania,  Wallachia,  and  Moldavia, 

SEAS.  —  N. :  Mare  Pigrum,  vel  Cronium,  Frozen  Ocean; 
Oceanus  Germanicus,  North  Sea.  W,  i  Atlanticum  Mare, 
Atlantic.  E.:  Palus  Maeotis,  Sea  of  Azov;  Pontus  Euxinus, 
Black  Sea;  Propontis,  Sea  of  Marmora;  JEgeum  Mare, 
Archipelago.  S. :  Mare  Internum,  Mediterranean ;  Mare 
Ionium,  W.  of  Greece ;  Mare  Inf  erum,  Tyrrhenum,  vel 
Tuscum,  Tuscan  Sea,  W.  of  Italy ;  Mare  Hadriaticum,  vel 
Superum,  Gidf  of  Venice. 

GULFS,  STRAITS,  &c.  — Sinus  Codanus,  vel  Mare  Sue- 
vicum,  Baltic;  Fretum  Britannicum,  vel  Gallicum, 
Straits  of  Dover;  Oceanus  Cantabricus,  Bay  of  Biscay ; 
Fretum  Gaditanum,  Straits  of  Gibraltar;  Gallicus 
Sinus,  Chdf  of  Lyons;  Sinus  Ligusticus,  Gidf  of 
2  (13) 


14  GEOGRAPHY. 

Genoa;  Tergestinus  Sinus,  Gulf  of  Trieste;  Fossa, 
Straits  of  Bonifacio ;  Fretum  Siculum,  Straits  of  Mes- 
sina ;  Hellespontus,  Straits  of  the  Dardanelles ;  Bos- 
porus Thracius,  vol  Thracicus,  Straits  of  Constaiifi- 
nople;  Bosporus  Cimmerius,  Straits  of  Kaff a, 

RIVERS.— Flowing  into  the  Baltic:  Vistula,  Vistula;  Via- 
dus,  Oder.  Flowing  into  the  North  Sea:  A  Ibis,  Elbe; 
Visurgis,  Weser ;  Scald  is,  Scheldt;  Rhenus,  lihine ; 
Tame  sis,  Thames,  Flowing  into  the  Atlantic:  Sequana, 
Seine;  Liger,  Loire;  Garumna,  Garonne;  Durius, 
Douro  ;  Tagus,  Tago  ;  Anas,  Guadiana  ;  B  set  is,  Guadal- 
quivir. Flowing  into  the  Mediterranean  :  I  b  e  r  u  s,  Ehro ; 
Rhodanus,  Rhone;  Arar,  Saone ;  Arnus,  Arno ;  Tibe- 
ris,  Tiber;  Athesis,  Adige ;  Pad  us,  Po.  Flowing  into 
the  Black  Sea:  Ister,  Danube;  Tyras,  Dniester;  Borys- 
thenes,  Dnieper;  Tanais,  Don.  Falling  into  the  Caspian 
Sea:  Rha,  Volga. 

MOUNTAINS. —  Sevo  Mons,  Dofrefield  Mts.;  Pyrenaei 
Montes,  Pyrenees;  Alpes,  The  Alps;  Apenninus 
Mons,  Apennines ;  Carpates  vel  Bastarnicee  Montes, 
Carpathian  Mts.;  Hsemus  Mons,  Hcernus,  or  the  Balkan; 
Hyperborei  vel  Rhipaei  Montes,  Ural  Mts. 

LAKES.  —  Lacus  Lemanus,  L.  of  Geneva;  L.  Brigan- 
tinus,  Boden  See,  or  L.  of  Constance;  L.  Verbanus, 
Lago  Maggiore;  L.  Larius,  Lago  di  Como;  L.  Benacus, 
Lago  di  Gar  da;  L.  Copais,  L.  Topolias. 

ISLANDS.  —  In  the  Atlantic:  Britannia  vel  Albion,  Bri- 
tain; Hibernia,  Ireland;  Hebtides  vel  Ebudes,  He- 
brides; Orcades,  OrJmegs ;  Thule,  Iceland  (?).  In  the 
Mediterranean:  Pityusae  Insulge;  among  these  Ebusus, 
Ivica;  Baleares  Insulge  (vel  Gymnesise),  Balearis 
Major,  Majorca;  Balearis  Minor,  Minorca;  Sardinia 
vel  Sardo,  Sardinia;  Corsica  vel  Cyrnos,  Corsica; 
jrEthalia  vel  Ilva,  Elba;  Trinacria  vel  Sicilia,  Sicily; 

'    Me  lit  a,  Malta.     In  the  Ionian  Sea:    Corcyra,    Corfu; 


GEOGRAPHY.  15 

Leucadia  vel  Leucas,  Santa  Maura;  Ithaca,  Thiaki; 
Cephallenia,  Ccphalonia ;  Zacynthus,  Zante;  Cy- 
thera,  Cerigo.  In  the  iEgean  Sea:  Creta,  Candia; 
Cyclades,  Cyclades ;  Euboea,  Negropont, 


HISPANIA. 

Spain  and  PortugaL 

BOUNDARIES.  — N  )cerinus  Cantabricus,  Bag  of  Bis* 
cay,  and  Pyrena3i  Montes;  E.  and  S.E.,  Mare  Inter- 
num, Mediterranean ;  W.,  Mare  Atlanticum,  Atlantic. 

MOUNTAINS.  —  N.,  Pyrensei  Montes,  Pyrenees;  Mons 
I  dub  e  da,  Sierra  D^  Oca  and  SiejTa  Molina;  Mons  Her- 
mini  us,  Sierra  WEstrella;  Marianus  Mons,  Sierra  Mo- 
rena ;  Orospeda  Mons,  Sierra  Segura. 

RIVERS.  — Falling  into  the  Atlantic:  Minius,  Minlio;  Du- 
rius,  Douro ;  Tagus,  Tagus ;  Anas,  Guadiana;  Beet  is, 
Guadalqidvir.  Falling  into  the  Mediterranean:  Iberus, 
Ehro  (which  receives  from  the  N.  Cinga,  Cinca,  and  Sicoris, 
Segre,  and  from  the  S.  Salo,  Xalon);  Turia,  Guadalamar; 
Sucre,  Xucar ;  Tader,  Segura. 

PROMONTORIES.  — Artabrum  Prom.,  Cape  Finisterre; 
Magnum  Prom.,  Cape  La  Boca;  Sacrum  Prom.,  C.  St. 
Vincent;  Junonis  Prom.,  C.  Trafalgar;  Calpe,  Bock 
of  Gibraltar  (which,  Avith  Abyla  on  the  African  coast, 
formed  the  Pillars  of  Hercules) ;  Scombraria  Prom., 
C.  de  Palos;  Dianium  Prom.,  C.  La  Nao;  Prom.  Pyre- 
naBum,  Cape  Creux. 

DIVISIONS.  —  II is p an i a  Citerior  or  Hither,  afterwards 
called  Tarraconensis ;  and  Ilispania  Ulterior  or 
FnrtJier,  divided  into  Lusitania,  Portugal,  in  the  West, 
and  Baatica,  Andalusia,  in  the  South. 

TRIBES. — In  Tarraconensis:  Callaici,  Astures,  Cantabri, 
Vacc^i,  Vascones,  Arevaci,  Jacetani,  Ves?itani,  Lacetani, 


16  GEOGRAPHY. 

Ilergetes,  Cosetani,  Arevaci,  Carpetani,  Celtiberi,  Ede» 
tani,  Ilercaones,  Oretani,  Contestani,  Bastitani.  In  Lusi- 
tania:  Lu  si  tani,  Vettones,  Celtici.  In  Baetica:  Turduii, 
Turdetani,  Bastuli,  Pocni. 

TARRACONENSIS.— ra^e^.— On  the  Ebro:  Csesar  Au- 
gusta, Saragossa.  On  the  Salo:  Bilbilis  (the  birth-placi 
of  Martial)*  On  the  E.  coast:  Tarraco,  Tarragona,  thi 
Capital;  Saguntum,  Murvledro  (its  destruction  by  Han 
nibal,  b. c.  219,  gave  rise  to  the  second  Punic  war);  Va 
lentia^  Valencia.  Neai*  Scrombraria  Prom.,  Cape  Falos  ' 
Carthago  Nova,  Carthagena  (taken  by  Scipio  Africanus 
B.C.  210).  On  the  Tagus :  Toletum,  Toledo.  Near  the 
source  of  the  Douro:  Numantia  (destroyed  by  Scipio  the 
Younger,  B.C.  133).  At  the  mouth  of  the  Douro:  Callc, 
Oporto. 

LUSITxiNI A.  —  Cities.  —  S  a  1  a  m  a  n  1 1  c  a,  Salamanca,  on  a 
tributary  of  the  Douro;  Norba  Coesarea,  Alcantara,  on 
the  Tagus  ;  0 1  i  s  i  p  o,  Lishoii,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river ; 
Emerita  Augusta,  Merida,  on  the  Anas,  Guadiana 
(colonized  by  Augustus  Avith  the  veterans  [Emeriti)  of  the 
fifth  and  tenth  legions). 

B/ETICA.— (7i7ie6'.  — Illiturgi,  on  the  Bsetis  (destroyed  by 
Scipio,  B.C.  210) ;  below  it,  Corduba,  Cordova,  surnamed 
Patricia  (the  birth-place  of  the  two  Senecas  and  Lucan) ; 
Italic  a,  Sevilla  la  Vieja  (the  birth-place  of  the  Emperors 
Traj an  an d  Hadrian ) ;  II  i  s  p  a  1  i  s,  Seville  ;  T  a  r  t e  s  s  u  s,  on 
the  coast;  Gades,  Cadiz,  on  a  small  island,  one  of  the 
chief  seats  of  commerce  of  the  Phoenicians;  Munda, 
Monda,  on  the  South  coast  (battle  b.  c.  45,  Caesar  defeated 
the  sons  of  Pompey). 

ISLANDS.  —  In  the  Mediterranean :  Pityusse  Insulge, 
comprising  E  b  u  s  u  s,  Mga,  and  Ophiusa  ;  B  a  I  e  a  r  e  s  (o?' 
Gymneslx')  Insulas,  Balearic  Isles,  comprising  Major 
Insula  or  Majorca  (Cap.  Palma,  Falma),  and  Minor  In- 
sula, Minorca,  Cap.  Mago,  Port  Malion. 


GEOGRAPHY.  17 

aALLIA. 

France,  Belgium^  and  West  of  S'witzerland. 

BOUNDARIES.  —  N. :  Oceanus  Britannicus,  Efiglish 
Channel;  F  re  turn  Gallic  um,  Straits  of  Dover;  and 
Oceanus  Germ  aniens,  German  Ocean.  E. :  Rhenus, 
RJiine,  and  Alpes,  The  Alps.  S. :  Mare  Internum, 
Mediterranean,   and   Pyrengei    Montes,   Pyrenees.     W. : 

Atlanticum  Mare,  Atlantic. 

• 

MOUNTAINS.  —  Pyrengei  Montes,  Pyrenees;  Alpes, 
Alps. 

RIVERS. — Falling  into  the  North  Sea  and  English  Channel: 
Rhenus,  Rhine  (with  its  tributaries,  Mosella,  Moselle, 
and  Mosa,  Meuse) ;  Scald  is,  Scheldt;  Samara,  Som^ne; 
Sequana,  Seine  (with  its  tributaries,  Matron  a,  Marne, 
and  Axona,  Aisne,  Isara,  Oise).  Falling  into  the  Bay  of 
Biscay:  Liger,  Loire  (and  its  tributary,  Elaver,  Allier) ; 
Garumna,  Garonne,  with  Duranius,  Dordogne,  and 
Aturus,  Adour.  Falling  into  the  Mediterranean:  Rho- 
danus,  Rhone  (with  its  tributaries,  Arar,  Saone,  Isara, 
75e?-e,  and  Druentia,  Durance). 

L  A.KE.  —  L.  L  e  m  a  n  u  s.  Lake  of  Geneva. 

DIVISIONS.  —  Gaul  was  originally  divided  among  the 
BELG/E  (between  the  Rhine  and  Seine) ;  CELT^E  (be- 
tween the  Seine  and  Garonne)  ;  and  AQUITANI  (between 
the  Garonne  and  the  Pyrenees).  About  B.C.  120,  Gaul 
was  divided  by  the  Romans  into  Provincia,  or  Gallia 
Braccata,  and  Gallia  Comata;  and  again,  B.C.  27,  into, 

I.  Provincia,  or  Gallia  Narbonensis,  in  the  S.E. ; 

II.  Aquitania,  in  the  S.W. ;  III.  Gallia  Celtica,  or 
Lugdunensis,  in  the  N.W. ;  IV.  Gallia  Belgica,  in 
the  N.E. 

NARBONENSIS,  divided  into  Narbonensis  Prima,  Narbo- 
nensis  Secmida,    Viennensis,  Alpes   Maritimce,  and   Alpes 

.  2^ 


18  GEOGRAPHY. 

Graice  et  Pennince. — Towns. — In  Narbonensis  Secunda  ana 
Viennonsis :  Massilia,  Marseilles^  on  the  coast  (founded 
about  B.C.  600,  famous  for  its  literature  and  commerce); 
Aquae  Sextise,  Aix  (Marius  defeated  the  Tcutoni,  B.C. 
102);  Telo  Martius,  Toulon,  on  the  coast;  E.  of  which 
Forum  Julii,  Frejiis  (the  birth-place  of  Aoricola) ;  Ge^ 
neva,  Geneva,  on  L.  Lemanus ;  Vienna,  Vienne,  on  the 
Rhone  (the  chief  town  of  the  Allobroges) ;  Cularo,  G)X' 
nohle;  Valentia,  Valence;  Do  a,  Die;  Arausio,  Orange 
(a  Roman  colony) ;  Avenio,  Avignon;  Arelate,  Aries  (a 
Roman  colony,  founded  by  the  soldiers  of  the  sixth  Legion). 
In  Narhonensis  Prima:  Nemausus,  JSlsmes;  on  the  coast, 
Agatha,  Agde ;  Narbo  Martius,  Narbonne,  the  Capital 
of  Gallia  Narboncnsis,  On  the  Garonne :  Tolosa,  Toulouse 
(surnamed  Palladia,  a  large  and  wealthy  city).  On  the 
coast :  R  u  s  c  i  n  0,  near  Perpignan. 

AQUITANIA,  divided  into  Novempopiilana,  S. ;    AqvUania 
Prima,  E. ;  Aquitania  Secunda,  W. 

Towns.  —  In  Kovempopulana :  Climberris,  Audi.  In 
Aquitania  Prima:  Albiga,  Albl;  on  the  Dordogne,  Uxel- 
lodunum,  Puech  d'lssola;  near  the  Elaver,  Allier,  Ger- 
g  o  V  i  a  ;  West  of  this,  A  u  g  u  s  t o  r  1 1  u  m,  Limoges  ;  in  the 
N.,  Avaricum,  Bourges.  In  Aquitania  Secunda:  on  the 
Garomie,  Burdigala,  Bordeaux  (the  birth-place  of  Auso- 
nius) ;  in  the  N.,  Limonum,  or  Pictavi,  Poitiers:  Medio- 
lanum,  or  Santones,  Saintes. 

LUGDUNENSIS,  divided  into  Lugdunensis  Prima,  Secunda, 
Tertia,  and  Quarta.  • 

Toums.  —  In  Liigdunensis  Prima :  L u  g d  u  n  u m,  Lyons, 
the  capital,  at  the  junction  of  the  Rhodanus  and  Arar, 
Saone  (the  birth-place  of  the  Emperor  Claudius) :  N.  o"^ 
this,  Bibracte,  or  Augustod  unum,  Aidun,  and  Alesia, 
Alise  (destroyed  by  Ca3sar,  b.  c.  52).  In  Lugdunensis 
Quarta:  on  the  Sequana,  <Se/*>ic,  A u  g u "s t o  1 ; o n  a,  or  Tri- 
c asses,  Troijes ;  Agendicum,  Sens,  the  Capital  of  tlie 
Senones;  and  Lutetia,  or  Parisii,  Paris;  Genu  bum,  Cenu 
bum,  or  Aureliani,  Orleans,  on  the  Liger,  the  Cap.  of  the 


GEOGRAPHY.  19 

Carnutes.  In  Lugdunensis  Secunda:  Rotomagus,  Rouen. 
In  Lugdunensis  Tertia :  on  the  Loire,  Csesarodunum, 
Tours,  Cap.  of  the  Turones ;  in  the  N.W.,  Brivates  Por- 
tus,  Brest. 

GxiLLIA  BELGICA,  divided  into  1.  Belglca  Prima;  2.  Bel- 
gica  Secunda;  3.  Germania  Prima ;  4.  Germania  Secunda; 
5.  Maxima  Sequanorum. 

Towns. — On  tht  Mosella:  Tullum,  Toul;  Divo durum, 
Metz;  Augusta  Treverorum,  Treves.  On  the  Matrona, 
Marne:  Durocatalaunum,  Chalons;  N.  of  this  Duro- 
cortorum,  Rheims,  the  Cap.  of  the  Remi.  On  the  Axona, 
Aisne:  Augusta  Suessionum,  Soissons.  On  the  Sa- 
mara, Somme  :  S a m  a r  o b r i  v a  or  A  m b  i a n i,  Amiens.  On 
the  coast:  Gesoriacum  or  Bononia,  Boidogne,  and 
It! us  Portus  (from  which  Cassar  set  sail  for  Britain). 
On  the  Scaldis:  Turnacum,  Tournay.  On  the  Rhine: 
Argentoratum,  Strashurg  (Julian  defeated  the  Ale- 
manni,  a.d.  357);  Borbeto magus.  Worms;  and  Mogon- 
tiacum,  Alentz ;  at  the  junction  of  the  Rhenus  and  Mo- 
sella, Confluentcs,  Cohlentz.  On  the  Rhenus:  Colon la 
Agrippina,  Cologne;  Noviomagus,  Nimeguen ;  Lug- 
dun  um  Batavorum,  Leyden.  On  the  Dubis,  Doubs :  Ve- 
sontio,  Besangon;  S.E.  of  this  Aventicum,  Avenche. 

TRIBES.  —  In  Narbonensis:  Salyes  or  Saluvii,  Allo- 
broges,  Yolcoe  Arccomici,  A'^oIcob  Tectosages.  In  Aqui- 
tania:  Biturigcs  Cubi,  Lemovices,  Arverni,  Pictones, 
Santones,  Bituriges  Vivisci.  In  Gallia  Lugdunensis:  Am- 
barri,  ^dui,  Lingones,  Senones,  Carnutes,  A^eneti, 
Osjsmii.  In  Gallia  Belgica:  Treveri,  Mediomatrici, 
Leuci,  Re  mi,  Suessiones,  Bellovici,  Atrebates,  Nervii, 
Morini,  Ilelvetii  (people  of  Switzerland),  Sequani, 
Rauraci,  Ubii,  Tungri,  Menapii,  Batavi. 

ISLANDS.— On  the  W.Vindilis,  ^eZZrnZe;  Uxantis,  ZTshant; 
Csesarea,  Jersey ;  Sarnia,  Guernsey ;  Riduna,  Alderney. 


20  GEOGRAPIiy. 

GERMANIA. 

Germany  and  Prussia, 

BOUNDARIES.  — N.,  Codanus  Sinus  and  Mare  Suevi. 
cum,  Baltic,  and  Oceanus  Germanicus;  E.,  Vistula, 
R,  Vistula,  and  Car  pates  Monte  s,  Carpathian  Moun- 
tains; S.,  Danubius,  B.  Danube;  W.,  Rhenus,  B.  Ehine. 

MOUNTAINS.  —  Hercynii  Montes,  all  the  mountains  in 
the  south  and  centre  of  Germany.  In  the  centre:  Her- 
cynia  Silva,  an  immense  forest  which  took  Coesar  nine 
days  to  cross. 

RIVERS.  — Falling  into  the  Baltic :  Vistula,  Vistula;  and 
Viadrus,  Oder  (with  its  tributary  Varta,  Wartha).  Fall- 
ing into  the  German  Ocean:  A  lb  is,  Elbe  (and  its  tributary 
SaUi,  Saale);  Visurgis,  Weser;  Amasia,  Ems;  Rhenus, 
Ehine  (with  its  tributaries  Nicer,  Keckar ;  Mccnus,  Main; 

■    Lupia  or  Luppia,  Lippe) ;  Ister  or  Danubius,  Danube. 

DIVISIONS.  — 1.  V  in  deli  or  Sue  vi,  N.  of  the  Elbe  to  the 
Baltic;  2.  Ilermiones,  N.  of  the  Danube;  3.  Istaevones, 
E.  of  the  Rhine. 

TRIBES,  &c.  —  Among  the  Vindeli  or  Suevi :  Lemovii,  Lon- 
gobardi,  Burgundiones,  Gothones,  Semnones.  Among 
the  Ilermiones :  Cherusci,  Catti,  Hermunduri,  Boii, 
Marcomanni.  Among  the  IstcBvones:  Frisii,  Chauci 
(divided  into  Minores  and  Majores),  Bructeri,  Marsii, 
Sicambri,  Tencteri,  Mattiaci,  Sedusii,  Marcomanni, 
Alemanni,  in  the  S.  Decumates  Agri,  whose  inhabit^- 
ants  paid  a  tithe  of  their  produce  to  the  Romans. 

N.  of  Germany:  Saxones,  Angli  and  Cimbri,  inhabit- 
ing Cimbrica  Chersonesus,  Jutland;  Ililleviones,  Sui- 
ones,  and  Sitones,  inhabiting  Scandinavia  or  Scandia, 
JSforioay  and  Sweden. 

N.  B.  The  Teutones,  probably  dwelt  in  the  N.  of  Ger- 
many, on  the  coast  of  the  Baltic. 


GEOGRAPHY.  21 


VINDELICIA,  RHJETIA,  NORICUM,  PANNONIA, 
ILLYRICUM. 

Bavaria ;  East  of  Switzerland,  Tyrol ;  Austria,  South  of  the 
Danube;  Hungary ;  Ilhjria,  Croatia,  Dalmatia,  and  part 
of  Turkey. 

ViNDELICIxV. 
Bavaria. 

BOUNDARIES.  — N.  and  W.,  Danubius,  i?.  Danube;  E., 
R.  ^nus,  Inn;  S.,  ^nus,  FL  Rhgetia,  and  Brigan- 
tinus  Lacus,  Lake  of  Constance. 

RIVERS.  —  Isarus,  Iser  ;  Lie  us,  Lech. 

TRIBES.  —  Brigantii,  Genauni,  Estiones. 

TOWNS. — Augusta  Vindelicorum,  Augsburg;  Brigan- 
tia,  Bregentz ;  Reginum,  Ratisbon. 

RlI^TlA. 

East  of  Sivitzerland  and  the  Tyrol. 

BOUNDARIES.  —  N.,  Brigantinus  Lacus,  R.  ^nus, 
and  Vindelicia:  E.,  Noricum;  S.,  Gallia  Cisalpina; 
^Y.,  the  Ilelvetii. 

RIVERS.  — R  hen  us,  Rhine;  iEnus,  Lm  ;  Addua,  Adda; 
Ticinus,  Ticino;  A  the  sis,  Adige  (all  these  rise  ic 
Rhgetia). 

TRIBES. — Lepontii,  Cap.  Oscela;  Sarunetes,  Cap.  Curia, 
Coire;  Brenni,  Vonnones,  Tridentini. 

Noricum. 

Austria,  Soidh  of  the  Danube. 

BOUNDARIES.  — N.,  Danubius;  E.,  Mons  Cotius  and 
Pannonia;  S.,  Illyricum,  R.  Savus,  Save,  and  Alpes 
Carnicae;  AY,,  Rhaetia  and  R.  ^Enus. 


22  GEOGRAPHY. 

RIYERS. — Juvavus,  Salza ;  Anisus,  Enns ;  Murus, 
Muhr ;  Dravus,  Drave  (all  these  rise  in  Noricum). 

TOWNS.  —  J  u  V  a  V  u  m,  SaUzburg  ;  B  o  i  o  d  u  r  u  m,  near  Pas- 
sail,  on  the  Danube,  and  Lauriacum,  the  station  of  a 
Roman  fleet;  Noreia,  Neumarkt,  near  the  centre  (battle 
B.  c.  113,  the  Consul  Carbo  defeated  bj  the  Cimbri) ;  S.E. 
Celeia,  Cilly.  ^ 

Pannonia. 

Hungary,  Slavoiiia,  and  part  of  Croatia  and  Turkey. 

BOUNDARIES.  — N.  and  E.,  Danubius  Fl.;  S.,  Illyri- 
cum;  W.,  Noricum. 

RIVERS. — Arab  on,  Raah ;  Dravus,  Drave;  Savus,  Save. 

LAKES. — Voice  a  Pal  us.  Flatten  See;  Peiso  L.,  Neu- 

siedler  See, 

DIVISIONS.  —  Pannonia  Superior  and  Inferior. 

TOWNS.  —  On  the  Danube:  Vindobona,  Vienna;  Car- 
nuntum  (E.  of  Vienna);  Acincum  or  Aquincuni, 
Buda ;  Contra  Acincum,  Pestli;  Paetovia,  near  Pd^aw, 
on  the  Drave;  Mursa,  Esseck,  near  the  junction  of  the 
Drave  and  Danube.  On  the  Save:  Siscia,  Sissek;  and 
Sirmium. 

Illyricum. 

Illyria,  Dalmatia,  Croatia,  and  part  of  Turkey. 

BOUNDARIES.  — N.,  Noricum;  E.,  Pannonia  and  M(»- 
sia;  S.W.,  Mare  Hadriaticum  and  Histria. 

MOUNTAIN.  — Albius  Mons. 

DIVISIONS.  — N.  1.  Liburnia  (inhabited  by  the  Liburni 
and  Japydes) ;  2.  Dalmatia.  The  Liburni  were  famed 
as  bold  and  skilful  sailors,  their  vessels  were  remarkable 
for  their  swiftness ;  hence,  vessels  after  their  models  were 
te*    ed  Liburnicce  Naves. 


GEOGRAPHY.  23 

TOWNS.  —  ^mona,  Laybach;  Scar  don  a,  Scardona,  the 
Cap.  of  Liburnia;  Salon  a,  Spalatro  (the  birth-place  of 
Diocletian) ;  Narona,  on  the  Naro,  Narenta  ;  S.  of  which 
Epidaurus,  OldRagusa;  Scodra,  Skutari,  on  Labeatis 
Palus,  Lalce  of  Skutari ;  S.  of  this,  Lissvis,  Alessio. 

ISLANDS.  —  W.  of  Illyricum:  Scardona,  Isola  Grossa; 
Pharus,  Lesina;  Corcyra  Nigra,  Ciirzola ;  Melita, 
Melida. 


ITALIA. 

Hesperia,  (Enotria,  Ausonia,  Saturnia. 

Ital?/. 

BOUNDARIES.  — N.  and  N.W.,  Alpes,  The  Alps;  E.,  Ha- 
driaticum  Mare  vel  Superum,  Adriatic' Sea,  ov  Gulf 
of  Venice;  S.,  Mare  Internum,  Mediterranean;  W., 
Mare  Tyrrhenum,  Tuscum,  vel  Inferum,  Tuscan  Sea. 

GULFS.— E.,  Tergestinus  Sinus,  Gidf  of  Trieste:  S.,  Ta- 
rentinus  Sinus,  Gulf  of  Taranto ;  Scylacius  Sinus, 
Gulf  of  Squillace:  W.,  Terinseus  Sinus,  Gulf  of  St. 
Eifemia;  Laus  Sinus,  Gulf  of  Policastro ;  Passtanus 
Sinus,  Gulf  of  Salerno;  Cumanus  vol  Puteolanus 
Sinus,  Bay  of  Naples;  Cajetanus  Sinus,  Gidf  of 
Gaeta:  S.  of  Liguria,  Ligusticus  Sinus,  Gidf  of  Genoa. 

STRAIT.  —  r  r  e  t u  m  S  i  c  u  1  u  in,  Straits  of  Messina. 

MOUNTAINS.  — Alpes,  Tlte  Alps,  in  the  North,  divided 
into  three  principal  chains. 

I.  The  Western:  Alpes  Mantimas,  Maritime  Alps;  Alpes 
Cottite,  Mt.  Cenis,  and  Mt.  Genevre ;  Alpes  Graias,  Alps  of  Sa- 
voy, including  Little  St.  Bernard  and  3[t.  Blanc.  11.  The  Central 
Alps:  Alpes  Penninse,  Alps  of  Valais,  including  Great  St.  Ber- 
nard,  Mt.  Rosa,  and  St.  Gothard ;  Alpes  Lepontia?,  Alps  of  the 
Orisons;  Alpes  Rhseticae,  Alps  of  Tyrol.  III.  The  Eastern 
Alps:  Alpes  Noricae,  Alps  of  Styria ;  Alpes  Carnicse,  Carnie 
Ah)S ;  Alpes  Jiiliae,  Julian  Alp9^ 


24  GEOGRAPHY. 

AppenninusMons,  Ttie  Apennines^  running  the  who^e 
length  of  Italy.  Principal  Elevations:  Mens  Soracte, 
S.  Oreste,  in  Etruria ;  Mons  Sacer,  in  Sabinum;  Mons 
A  lb  an  us,  in  Latium  (on  which  the  Ferise  Latinae  were 
celebrated);  Algidus  Mons,  in  Latium;  Mons  Mass>- 
cus,  in  Campania,  near  the  coast  (famous  for  its  wines) ; 
Vesuvius,  the  celebrated  volcanic  mountain  (the  first 
eruption  occurred  Aug.  24,  a.d.  79,  which  destroyed  Pom- 
peii and  Herculaneum)  ;  Garganus,  Mie.  GarganOy  in 
Apulia;  and  Mons  Vultur. 

RIVERS. — In  Gallia  Cisalpina:  Padus,  or  Eridanus,  Po ; 
it  rises  in  Mons  Vesulus,  Monte  Viso,  flows  east,  and  falls 
into  the  Adriatic.  Chief  tributary  streams  from  the  N. : 
Duria  Major,  Dora  Baltea ;  Ticinus,  Ticino  (Hannibal 
defeated  P.  C.  Scipio,  b.c.  218),  from  L.  Verbanus,  Lago 
Maggiore;  Addua,  Adda,  from  L.  Larius,  Lago  di  Gar  da; 
and  Mine  i  us,  Mincio,  from  L.  Benacus,  Lago  di  Gar  da. 
From  the  S. :  Tanarus,  Tanaro ;  Trebia,  Trehia  (Han- 
nibal defeated  the  Romans,  b.c.  218).  Athesis,  Adige, 
N.  of  the  Po ;  Rubicon,  Fiiimicino,  between  Cisalpine 
Gaul  and  Umbria ;  Metaurus,  Metauro,  in  Umbria  (Has- 
drubal  defeated,  b.c.  207);  and  Aufidus,  Ofanto,  in 
Apulia,  all  fall  into  the  Adriatic.  Running  into  the  Tus- 
can Sea:  Arnus,  Arno,  in  Etruria;  Tiber  is,  Tivere  —  it 
receives,  on  the  left,  Clanis,  Chiano,  and  Cremera  (300 
Fabii  destroyed,  B.C.  477);  on  the  right,  Tinia,  Tinia, 
and  its  tributary  Clitumnus,  CUtumno ;  Nar,  Nera,  and 
Velinus,  Velino,  its  tributary;  A  Hi  a  (Gauls  overcome 
the  Romans,  b.c.  390) ;  and  Anio,  Teverone.  In  the  S.  of 
Latium:  Liris,  Garigliano.  In  Campania:  Vulturnua, 
Volturno ;  Silarus,  Silaro  (victory  of  Crassus,  b.c.  71). 

LAKES.  —  In  Cisalpine  Gaul:  L.  Verbanus,  Lago  Mag- 
giore; L.  Larius,  Lago  di  Como ;  L.  Benacus,  Lago  di 
Garda.  In  Etruria:  L.  Trasimenus,  Lago  di  Perugia 
(Hannibars  third  victory,  B.C.  217)  ;  L.  Vulsiniensis, 
L.  Bolsena.     In   Sabini:    L.  Fucinus,  Lago  di  Celano, 


G  E  O  G  R  A  r  n  Y  .  25 

In  Latium :  L.  Reg  ill  us,  Lago  di  Regillof  (battle  b.  c. 
498);  L.  A  lb  an  us,  Lago  di  Albano.  In  Campania:  L. 
Avernus,  Lago  Averno,  and  L.  Lucrinus,  famed  for  its 
oysters. 

CAPES.  —  In  Etruria:  Populonium  Prom.  In  Latium: 
Circeium  Prom.,  Monte  Circello.  In  Campania:  Mise- 
num  Prom.,  Ca.pe  Miseno.,  and  Minervae  Prom.,  Cape 
Campanella.  In  Lucania:  Palinurum  Prom.,  Capte  Pa- 
Unuro.  In  Apulia:  Gargiinum  Prom.,  Cape  Gargano ; 
lapygium  vel  Salentlnum  Prom.,  Ca2?e  Leiica.  In 
Bruttii :  L  a  c  i  n  i  u  m  Prom.,  Cape  Colonne  ;  II  e  r  c  u  1  e  u  m 
Prom.,  Cape  Spartivenio ;  Leucopetra  PrOm.,  Cape 
Armi. 

DIVISIONS. —  North:  I.  Liguria;  II.  Gallia  Cisal- 
pina,  vel  Togata;  III.  Venetia,  Garni,  and  Ilistria. 
Middle:  IV.  Etruria,  vel  Tuscia:  V.  Umbria;  VI. 
Picenum;  VII.  Sabinum;  VIII.  Latium;  IX.  Sam- 
nium;  X.Campania.  South:  XI.  Apulia;  XII.  Lu- 
cania; XIII.  Bruttii. 

LIGURIA. — Nice,  Genoa,  and  part  of  Piedmont. — Boundaries: 
N.,  R.  Padus,  Po,  and  Gallia  Cisalpina ;  E.,  Gallia  Cisal- 
pina;  S.,  Sinus  Ligusticus,  Gulf  of  Genoa;  W.,  Alpes 
Maritimse  and  Gallia. 

Cities. — Genua,  Genoa,  at  the  N.  of  the  Gulf  of  Genoa  ; 
Pollen ti a,  Polenza,  on  the  Tanarus. 

Tribes. —  N.  of  Apenoines:  Vagienni,  Statielli,  Fri- 
niates,  Montani,  Li g tires.  South:  Intemelii,  In- 
gauni,  Apuani. 

GALLIA  CISALPINA,  vel  TOGATA.  —  Part  of  the  king- 
dom of  Sa7'dinia,  Lombardg,  Parma,  Modena,  and  part  of 
States  of  the  Church. 

Divisions.— I.  GALLIA  CISPADANA,  inhabited  by  the 
Boii  and  Lingones. 

Cities:  Placentia,  Placenza,  near  the  junction  of  the 
Po  and  Trebia,  (founded  by  Romans,  219  b.c.)  ;  Mutina, 
Modena  (M.  Antony  defeated,  b.c.  43);  Ravenna,  Ra- 
venna; Bononia,  Bologna. 


26  GEOGRAPHY. 

II.  GALLIA  TRANSPADANA,  inhabited  by  the  Tau- 
rini,  Salassi,  Insubres,  Cenomani. 

Cities:  Augusta  Taurinorum,  Turin,  on  the  Padus: 
Vercella,  VerceUi,  near  which  Raudi  Campi,  (where  Ma- 
rius  defeated  the  Cimbri,  B.C.  101) ;  Ticinum,  Pavia,  on 
the  Ticinus;  Mediolanum,  Milan,  the  capital  of  tlie  In- 
subres; Co  mum,  Como,  on  L.  Larius ;  Cremona,  Ore- 
mo7ia,  on  the  Po,  (founded  by  Romans,  b.c.  219) ;  Mantua, 
Mantua,  on  the  Mincius,  (near  which  Virgil  was  born, 
B.C.  70). 

VENETIA,  CARNI,  et  IIISTRI A.  —  Eastern  part  of  VtJie- 
tian  Lomhardy  and  Istria. 

Boundaries.  —  N.  and  N.E.,  Alpes  Carnicae,  vel  Juliae, 
and  Rhajtia ;  E.,  Liburnia ;  S.,  Mare  Hadriaticum  and  R. 
Padus ;  W.,  R.  Athesis,  Adige,  and  Gallia  Transpadana. 

Cities. — Verona,  Verona,  on  the  Athesis;  E.  of  Verona, 
Patavium,  Padua,  (Livy  born,  B.C.  59);  Aquileia, 
Aquileia,  near  the  coast,  (destroyed  by  Attila,  king  of  the 
Huns,  A.D.  452) ;  E.  of  Aquileia,  Tergeste,  Trieste. 

ETRURIA,  TUSCIA,  vel  TYRRIIENIA.  —  Tuscany,  and 
part  of  States  of  the  Church. 

Boundaries.  —  N.,  R.  Macra,  Magra,  and  Apenninus 
Mons ;  E.  and  S.,  R.  Tiber ;  W.,  Tuscum  Mare. 

Cities.  —  Pis 86,  Pisa,  and  Florentia,  Florence,  both  on 
the  Arnus.  Luc  a,  Lucca,  on  the  Auser,  Serchio.  Fae- 
s  til  86,  Fiesole;  Pis  tori  a,  Pistoia,  (Catiline  defeated,  b.c. 
62);  Portus  Herculis,  Labronis,  vel  Liburni,  ig^- 
horn;  on  the  coast.  Poptilonium,  or  ia,  the  chief  sea- 
port of  Etruria.  Centum  Cell 86,  Civita  Vecchia;  on  the 
coast,  with  a  fine  harbour. 

The  following  were  probably  the  twelve  confederate  cities 
of  Etruria  Proper. 

Volaterrae,  Volaterra.  Vetulonii,  to  the  E.  of  Popu- 
lonia.  Rusell86,  on  the  Umbro.  Tarquinii,  Corneto. 
Agylla,  or  Caere,  Cerveteri,  (where  the  Vestal  Virgins 
took  refuge  on  the  destruction  of  Rome  by  the  Gauls,  b.  c. 
390).     Veii,  Isola,  on  the   Cremera,  twelve   miles   from 


G  E  O  G  R  A  P  H  Y .  27 

Rome,  (the  most  powerful  city  of  Etruria).  Falerii,  or 
turn,  (taken  by  Camillus,  B.C.  394),  near  Mt.  Soracte. 
Vulsinii,  Bolseiia,  on  L.  Yolsiniensis,  (the  birth-place  of 
Sejanus,  the  favourite  of  Tiberius).  Clusium,  Chiusi, 
near  the  Clanis,  (the  residence  of  Porsena).  Perusia, 
Perugia,  E.  of  Clusium,  on  the  Tiber.  Gorton  a,  Cortona, 
N.W.  of  Trasimene  Lake.  Arretium,  Arezzo,  (the  birth- 
place of  Maocenas). 

miBRl A.  — States  of  the  Church. 

Boundaries.  —  N.,  Gallia  Cispadana;  E.,  Mare  Hadriati- 
cum  and  Picenum  ;  S.,  Sabini ;  W.,  R.  Tiber.  It  was  in- 
habited in  the  N,  by  Galli  Senones. 

Cities.  —  Ariminum,  Rimini;  Sena  Gallic  a,  Seni- 
gaglia,  on  the  coast;  in  the  interior,  Sentinum,  (battle, 
B.C.  294,  Samnites  defeated);  Spoletium,  or  Spoletum, 
Spoleto,  in  the  South. 

PICENUM.  — Part  of  States  of  the  Church. 

Boundaries.  —  N.,  R.  ^sis,  Esino ;  E.,  Mare  Hadriati- 
cum  ;  S.,  Vestini,  in  Sabinum  ;  "W.,  Umbria  and  Sabini. 

Cities.  —  An  con  a,  Ancona,  in  the  N. ;  Asctilum  Pice- 
num, Ascoli,  (taken,  B.C.  89,  in  the  Marsic  or  Social 
War). 

Tribe.  —  Praetutii,  in  the  South. 

SABINUM.  —  Part  of   States  of  the   Church,   and   part   of 
Naples. 

Boundaries.  —  N.,  Umbria  and  R.  Nar ;  E.,  Apenninua 
Mons  and  Hadriaticum  Mare;  S.,  Samnium ;  W.,  Latium 
and  R.  Tiber. 

Cities.  —  Reate,  Bieti,  in  the  W. ;  Cures,  Correse,  (the 
native  city  of  Numa,  and  capital  of  the  Sabines) ;  Fidense, 
Castel  Giubileo,  and  Crustumerium,  between  the  Anio 
and  Tiber;  Amiternum,  in  the  E.,  on  the  borders  of  the 
Vestini,  (Sallust  born,  B.C.  86);  Alba  Fucentia,  Alba, 
N.  of  L.  Fucinus ;  Marrtivium,  chief  city  of  the  Marsi ; 
Sulmo,  Sulmona,  in  the  country  of  the  Peligni,  (Ovid 
born,  B.C.  43) ;  Corfinium,  the  chief  city  of  the  Peligni, 


28  GEOGRAPHY. 

Tribes.  —  j^iqui,  Marsi,  Peligni,  Marruciiii,  Ves- 
tini. 

LATIUM.  —  States  of  the  Church. 

Boundaries. — N.,  R.  Tiber  and  Anio;  E.,  Samnium  and 
Campania ;  S.  and  W.,  Mare  Tuscum. 

Cities.  —  Roma,  Rome,  on  the  Tiber,  (founded  by  Ro- 
mulus, B.C.  753,  on  the  Palatine  Mount);  built  on  seven 
hills,  Palatinus,  Capitolinus,  Quirinalis,  Vimina* 
lis,  Esquilinus,  Caelius,  and  Aventinus,  to  which 
were  afterwards  added  Janiculum,  Vatican  us,  and 
Collis  Ilortulorum  (Public  Buildings,  &c.,  vide  Topo- 
graphy). Ostia,  Ostia,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber.  Lau- 
ren tum,  on  the  coast.  Lavinium,  built  by  -^Eneas. 
Ardea,  the  city  of  Turnus.  Antium,  Porto  d^Anzo,  on 
the  coast.  Tibur,  Tivoli,  on  the  Anio,  (a  favourite  resi- 
dence of  the  Roman  nobles).  S.  of  this  Gabii.  Tuscu- 
lum,  near  Frascati,  surrounded  by  numerous  villas.  Alba 
Longa,  on  the  border  of  L.  Albanus,  founded  by  Ascanius 
(a  legend).  Procneste,  Palestrina.  Velitra3,  Velletri, 
(the  native  city  of  the  Octavian  family).  Corioli,  (which 
gave  to  C.  Marcius  the  surname  Coriolanus).  Aquinum, 
Aquino,  (birth-place  of  Juvenal).  Anagnia,  Anagni,  the 
capital  of  the  Hernici.  Eastward:  Arpinum,  Arpino, 
(birth-place  of  Cicero  and  Marius) ;  Anxur,  or  Tarra- 
cina,  Terracina ;  Suessa  Pometia,  (stormed  by  Tarq. 
Superbus).  Cajeta,  Gaeta ;  Formige,  Mola,  (famous  for 
its  wine) ;  and  Minturnge ;  on  the  coast. 

Tribes.  —  Latini,  ^Equi,  Hernici,  Rutuli,  Yolsci. 

SAMNIUM.  — Part  of  Naples. 

Boundaries.  —  N.,  Sabinum  and  Mare  Hadriaticum  ;  E., 
Apulia ;  S.,  Campania  and  Lucania ;  W.,  Campania  and 
Sabinum. 

Cities.  —  B  e  n  e V e n t u  m,  Benevento,  (Pyrrhus  defeated, 
B.C.  275).  S.W.  of  Beneventum :  Caudium,  near  which 
the  pass"  called  Furculae  Caudinoe,  or  Caudine  Forks 
(where    the    Roman    army,    overcome   by   the    Samnites, 


GEOGRAPHY.  29 

passed  under  the  yoke,  b.c.  321);   Bovilnum,  BojanOy 
(chief  city  of  the  Pentri). 

Tribes.— N.,  Frentani;  Middle,  Pentri;  S.,  Hirpini. 

CAMPANIA.  — Part  of  Naples. 

Boundaries.  —  N.,  Latium  and  R.  Liris  ;  E.,  Samnium  ; 
S.,  R.  Silarus ;  W.,  Tyrrhenum  Mare. 

Cities.  —  On  the  coast :  C  u m as,  the  most  ancient  Greek 
colony  in  Italy;  Baiae,  (famed  for  its  baths) ;  Misenum, 
the  principal  station  of  the  Roman  fleet  in  the  Tyrrhene 
Sea;  Puteoli,  or  Dic£earchia,  Pozzuoli ;  Neapolis, 
Naples^  founded  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Parthenope ; 
Herculaneum  (over  which  stand  Portici  and  JResina)y 
Pompeii,  and  Stabise,  (destroyed,  a.d.  79,  by  an  eruption 
of  Vesuvius) ;  Salernum,  Salerno.  In  the  Interior:  Ve- 
nafrum,  Venafro,  (noted  for  its  olives);  Capua,  Capua, 
(which  espoused  the  cause  of  Hannibal,  and,  when  taken 
by  the  Romans,  b.  c.  211,  suffered  the  vengeance  of  the 
conquerors);  Nola,  Nola,  (here  Augustus  died,  a.d.  14). 
In  the  N. :  Mons  Massicus  and  Falernus  Ager,  both 
noted  for  wine  (Massic  and  Falernian). 

Tribes. — N.,  Aurunci;    S.,  Picentini. 

APULIA.  —  Part  of  Naples. 

Boundaries. — N.  and  E.,  Mare  Hadriaticum ;  S.,  Taren- 
tinus  Sinus ;  W.,  R.  Bradanus,  Brandano,  and  Samnium. 
'^ Divisions.  —  Daunia,  Peucetia,  Messapia  or  lapy- 
gia,  Calabria. 

Cities.  —  Luceria,  Liicera,  (noted  in  the  Samnite  wars); 
Argyripa  or  Arpi,  ^rpi.  On  the  Aufidus:  Canusium, 
Canosa,  and  Cannae,  Canne,  (battle,  b.c.  216,  Romans 
defeated  by  Hannibal)  ;  Asculum  Aptilum  (Romans 
defeated  by  Pyrrhus,  b.c.  279);  Venusia,  Venosa,  (the 
birth-place  of  Horace,  b.c.  65).  In  Calabria:  Brundti- 
sium,  Brindisiy  (the  usual  port  of  embarcation  for  Greece) ; 
Ilydruntum  orllydrus,  Otranto;  Tarentum  or  Taras, 
Taranto,  (a  flourishing  and  opulent  city). 

Tribes.  —  Pediculi,  Salentini. 


80  GEOGRAPHY. 

LUCANIA.  —  Part  of  Naples. 

Boundaries.  —  N.,  Campania,  Samnium  and  Apulia  ;  E., 
Tarentinus  Sinus;  S.,  Bruttii  and  R.  Laus;  W.,  Tyrrhenum 
Mare. 

Cities.  —  In  the  E. :  Metapontum;  Ileraclea,  on  tho 
Aciris;  Sybaris  (proverbial  for  the  luxury  of  its  inhabit- 
ants) ;  Thurii,  (founded  by  the  Athenians,  b.c.  443,  with 
whom  were  Herodotus,  and  Lysias  the  orator).  In  the 
W.,  also  on  the  coast:  Pa3stum,  vel  Posidonia,  (noted 
for  its  roses) ;  Elea,  Helia,  or  Yell  a,  (the  birth-place  of 
Zeno  and  Parmenides,  the  founders  of  the  Eleatic  School 
of  Philosophy).  In  the  Interior:  to  the  E.,  Pandosia; 
Potentia,  Potenza. 

BRUTTIUM.  —  Part  of  Naples. 

Boundaries.  —  N.,  Lucania;.  E.,  Ionium  Mare  ;  S.,  Mare 
Siculum  ;  W.,  Tyrrhenum  Mare. 

Cities.  —  On  the  East:  Croton,  Cotrone,  (the  residence 
of  Pythagoras,  who  here  founded  his  school,  and  of  Milo, 
the  most  famous  athlete  of  antiquity) ;  Scylacium,  Squil- 
lace;  Locri  Epizephyrii,  (the  city  of  Zaleucus,  the  law- 
giver) .  On  the  West :  Consentia,  Cosenza,  the  Capital ; 
TeraesaorTempsa.  On  the  coast  further  South:  Rhe- 
^gium,  Eeggio,  N.  of  Rhegium,  the  Rock  Scylla,  opposite 
to  Charybdis  on  the  Sicilian  coast. 

Islands. 

SICILIA  OR  TRINACRIA,  Sicihj,  (inhabitants  the  Sicani) 
Mountain.  —  JEtna,  Monte  Gibello.  Rivers.  —  Syma3thus, 
Giaretta,  in  the  E. ;  Himera,  Salso,  in  the  S.  Capes.  — 
Pelorura  Prom.,  Cape  Faro ;  Pachynum  Prom.,  Cape  Fas- 
saro;  Lilybseum  Prom.,  Cape  Boeo.  Cities. — E.  Messana, 
Messina;  Tauromenium,  Taormina;  Cat  an  a,  Catania; 
Syracusee,  Syracuse  or  Siragossa,  consisting  of  live  towns, 
1.  Ortygia,  (or  Nasos,  the  Island),  2.  Achradina,  3. 
Tyche,  4.  Neapolis,  and  5.  the  superb  Epipolse:  in 
the  S.  Agrigentum,  Girgenti,  (famed  for  its  temple  of 
Zeus  Olympius) ;  Selinus,  ruins:  in  the  W.  Lilybseum, 


GEOGRAT>HY.  31 

Marsala;  Drepanum,  Trapani:  in  the  N.  Scgeste  or 
iE g e s t a,  near  Alcamo ;  Panormus,  Palermo.  II i m e r a. 
(battle,  B.C.  480):  in  the  centre  Henna  or  Enna,  Cadro 
Giovanni,  (from  which  Plato  carried  off  Proserpine). 

North  from  Sicily,  MoWdd  vel  yulcania3  Insulas, 
Lipari  Islands,  the  largest  of  which  Linara;  Strongvle. 
SiromboU:  W.  Agates  Insulse,  (battle,  B.C.  241,  Car- 
thaginians defeated ) :  S.  C  o  s  s  y  r  a,  Pantetearia  ;  M  e  1 1 1  a. 
Malta;  Gaulus,  Gozzo,  W.  of  Etruria:  Ilva  vel  iEthalia. 
Elba,  (famed  for  its  iron-mines);  Corsica.  Corsica.  ChieJ 
Towns.  —  Mariana,  and  Alalia  or  Aleria,  a  Roman  colony 
S.  of  Corsica:  Sardinia  vel  Sardo,  Sardinia,  Cap.  Ca 
ralis,  Cagliari,  in  the  S. 


MCE  SI  A. 

Servia  and  Bulgaria. 

BOUNDARIES.— N.,  R.  Danubius  or  Ister;  E.,  Pontus  Eux 
inus,  Black  Sea  ;  S.,  Hsemus  Mons ;  W.,  Ili3^ricum  and  R 
Drinus,  Drino. 

DIVISIONS. — AY.,  Moesia  Superior,  including  Dacir 
Aureliani;  E.,  Moesia  Inferior,  including  Scythir 
Parva. 

TRIBES.  — Moe si,  Scordisci,  Dardani,  Triballi. 

RIVERS.  —  Drinus,  Drino;  Margus,  Morava ;  CEscus, 
Isker ;  latrus,  lantro ;  all  tributaries  of  the  Danube. 

TOWNS.  —  In  Moesia  Superior:  Singidunum,  Belgrade, 
Margus,  near  the  Margus;  Naissus,  Nissa,  on  the  Mar- 
gus. In  Moesia  Inferior:  Sardica  on  the  CEscus,  S.E.  of 
which  Tauresium,  (the  birth-place  of  Justinian).  On 
the  Danube:  Nico polls,  Nicopoli,  built  by  Trajan.  On 
the  borders  of  the  Pontus  Euxinus,  Black  Sea:  Tomi,  (to 
which  Ovid  was  banished  by  Augustus),  to  the  South  of 
this  Odessus,  Odessa,  W.  of  which  Marcianopolis, 
founded  by  Trajan. 


^2  GEOGRAPHY. 

DACIA. 

Transylvania^  Wallachia,  Moldavia^  Bessarabia, 

BOUNDARIES.— N.,  Mons  Carpates  vel  Bastarnicae,  and  R. 
Tjras,  Dniester ;  E.,  Pontus  Euxinus,  Black  Sea,  and  Sar- 
matia ;  S.,  R.  Danubius ;  W.,  R.  Tibiscus,  Theiss. 

RIVERS.  —  Tibiscus,  Theiss;  Aluta,  Aliita;  Ardiscus, 
Argish;  Ararus,  Seretli;  Porata  or  Hierasus,  Pruth; 
all  falling  into  the  Danube. 

TRIBES.  —  Getse  vel  Daci,  (chief  city  Sarmizegethusa 
or  Ulpia  Trajana) :  Jazyges,  in  the  West. 


SARMATIA. 

Part  of  European  Russia, 

BOUNDARIES.— E.,  R.  Tanais,  Don;  S.,  Palus  Masotis,  Sea 
of  Azov,  and  Pontus  Euxinus;  W.,  R.  Tyras,  Dniester. 

TRIBES. — Bastarnae,  Jazyges,  Roxolani,  Hamaxobii,  Alani, 
Venedi,  &c.  &c. 

TOWNS,  &c.  —  Olbia,  near  the  junction  of  the  Borysthenes, 
Dnieper,  and  Hypanis.  S.  of  Sarmatia:  Chersonesus 
T  auric  a,  Crimea;  on  the  AY.  coast  of  which,  Cherso- 
nesus; on  Bosporus  Cimmerius,  Straits  of  Kaffa, 
Panticapaeum,  Kertsch,  the  residence  of  the  Greek  kings 
of  the  Bosporus. 


MACEDONIA. 

Part  of  tlie  Roumelia  in  Turkey. 

l^r»UND ARIES.— N.,  Moesia;  E.,  Thracia;  S.,  Mare  ^geum 
and  Thessalia ;  W.,  Illyris  Graeca,  included  in  Macedonia 
under  the  Romans. 


GEOGRAPHY.  33 

GULFS.--S.  Thermaicus  Sinus,  Gulf  of  Salonikl ;  Toro- 
naiciis  Sinus,  Gulf  of  Cassandra;  Singiticus  Sinus, 
Gulf  of  Monte  Santo;  Strymonicus  Sinus,  Gulf  of 
Contessa. 

MOUNTAINS.  —  N.,  Mons  Orbelus,  Scardus  Mona, 
separating  Macedonia  from  Moesia;  S.W.  of  the  Penin 
sula  Acte,  Mons  Athos,  Monte  Santo. 

RIVERS.  —  Strymon,  Struma  or  Carassou,  flowing  into 
Strymonic  Gulf;  Axius,  Vardari  (with  its  tributary  Eri. 
gon),  and  Ilaliacmon,  Vistriza,  flowing  into  the  Ther- 
maic  Gulf. 

DIVISIONS. —  S.,  Pieria,  Elymiotis,  ^Emathia,  Chal- 
cidice,  with  the  Peninsulas  Pallene,  Sithonia,  and 
Acte;  E.,  Mygdonia  and  Sintica.  In  the  centre: 
Pelagonia;  N.,  Pseonia;  W.,  Lyncestse  and  Eordaea. 

CITIES. — Pydna,  Kitron,  near  the  Ilaliacmon,  (battle,  B.C. 
168  ;  ^milius  Paulus  routs  Perseus,  the  last  king  of  Mace- 
donia);  Pella,  Alaklisi,  the  Capital ;  Thessalonica  or 
Thermia,  Saloniki,  on  the  Thermaic  Gulf;  Potidaea, 
Flnaka,  on  the  Isthmus  of  Pallene;  Olynthus,  ruins,  on 
the  Toronaic  Gulf,  (destroyed  by  Philip  II.,  B.C.  347): 
Amphipolis,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Strymon,  (taken  from 
the  Athenians  in  the  Peloponnesian  AVar  by  Brasidas, 
B.C.  424) ;  Eastward  Philip  pi,  Philippi,  (battle,  B.C.  42; 
Brutus  and  Cassius  defeated  and  slain  by  Antony  and 
Octavianus). 

The  tract  of  country  called  ILLYRIS  GRiECA  (bounded  N. 
by  Drinus,  R.  Drino ;  E.,  Macedonia;  S.,  Epirus; 
AV.,  Iladriaticum  Mare);  inhabited  by  various  tribes 
of  Illyrian  origin,  was  incorporated  with  the  Roman  pro- 
vince of  Macedonia.  Chief  Towns.  —  On  the  coast:  Epi- 
damnus  vel  Dyrrachium,  Burazzo,  (the  usual  landing- 
place  for  persons  who  crossed  over  from  Brundusium,  in 
Italy).  Inland:  Apollonia,  (celebrated  as  a  place  of 
commerce  and  learning ;  here  Augustus  for  some  time 
studied  literature  and  philosophy). 


34  GEOGRAPHY. 

THRACIA. 

Roumelia. 

BOUNDARIES.  — N.,  Hgemus  Mons  and  Moesia;  E.,  Pontus 
Euxinus  and  Bosporus  Thracius ;  S.,  Propontis,  Helles- 
pontus  and  MgQxxm  Mare ;  W.,  Macedonia. 

W^ATERS  OF  THRACE.  — He  lies  pontus,  Dardanelles; 
Propontis,  Sea  of  Marmora;  Pontus  Euxinus,  BlaeJc 
Sea;  Bosporus  Thracius,  Straits  of  Constantinople; 
Melas  or  Melanes  Sinus,  Gulf  of  Saros, 

MOUNTAINS.  —  N.,   Haemus,   Balkan;    W.,    Pangaeus, 

Pangea,  east  of  which  Rhodope,  sacred  to  Bacchus. 

RIVERS.— In  the  W.  Nestus,  Nesto,  rising  in  the  N.W. 
and  flowing  S.  into  the  -^gean  Sea;  Hebrus,  Maritza, 

CITIES.  — Abd era,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nestus,  (the  birth- 
place of  Democritus) ;  Adrianopolis,  Adrianople,  on  the 
Hebrus;  Chersonesus,  in  the  S.  between  the  Gulf  of  Saros 
and  the  Hellespont,  (colonized  by  Athenians  under  Mil- 
tiades) ;  Lysimachia,  Eksemil,  at  the  Isthmus;  S.  of 
this  Sestos,  (between  which  and  Abydos,  Xerxes  formed 
a  bridge  of  boats) ;  JEgos  Potamos,  (near  which  Lysan- 
der  defeated  the  Athenian  fleet,  b.c.  405)  ;  Byzantium, 
Constantinople,  on  the  Thracian  Bosporus,  (made  the 
Capital  of  the  Roman  empire  under  Constantine,  a.d.  330). 


GRiECIA  — HELLAS. 

Greece. 

BOUNDARIES.  —  N.,  Macedonia  and  Illyria;  E., 
j^geum  Mare,  Archipelago,  and  Myrtoum  Mare;  S., 
Mare   Internum,  Mediterranean;  W.,  Ionium   Mare, 

Ionian  Sea, 


GEOaRAPHY.  35 

GULFS.  —  E.,  Therm  aicus  Sinus,  Gulf  of  Saloniki ;  Pa- 
gasaeus  Sinus,  Gulf  of  Volo ;  Maliacus  Sinus,  Gulf 
of  Zeitoun;  Saronicus  Sinus,  Gulf  of  ^gina;  Argo- 
licus  Sinus,  Gulf  of  Napoli.  S.,  Laconicus  Sinus, 
Gulf  of  ColokytJiia  ;  Messeniacus  Sinus,  Gulf  of  Koran, 
W.,  Cyparissius  Sinus,  Gulf  of  Arcadia  ;  N.  of  Achaia 
and  Corinthia,  Sinus  Corinthiacus,  Gulf  of  Lepanio ; 
S.  of  Locris,  Crissaeus  Sinus,  Bay  of  Salona;  S.  of 
Epirus,  Ambracius  Sinus,  Gulf  of  Arta, 

STRAIT.  —  Euripus,  Channel  of  Negropont,  between  Boeotia 
and  Eubcea. 

MOUNTAINS.  —  In  Thessalia:  N.,  Cambunii  Montes, 
Bolutza  Mis.;  W.,  Olympus,  Ely  mho ;  Ossa,  Kissovo ; 
Pel  ion,  Plesnia;  S.,  0th  rys,  Otlirys ;  W.,  Pin  d  us, 
Pindus. 

In  Epirus:  N.AV.,  Acroceraunii  vel  Ceraunii 
Montes,  Chimera. 

In  Phocis:  N.,  (Eta  Mons,  Katavoihra;  W.,  Parnas- 
sus, Lyakouri. 

In  Bceotia:  S.W.,  Helicon,  Zagora,  (a  haunt  of  the 
Muses).  On  the  borders  of  Attica  and  Megaris,  Cithae- 
ron,  Cithmron. 

In  Attica:  N.,  Parnes  Montes,  Kozia;  N.E.,  Pen- 
telicus,  Pentele,  (celebrated  for  its  marble);  S.  E.  of 
Athens,  Hymettus,  Telovuni;  at  the  S.  extremity  of 
Attica,  Laurium,  (famed  for  its  silver-mines). 

On  the  Borders  of  Achaia:  Cyllene,  Zyria,  (Mercury 
born). 

In  Laconia  :  Taygetus,  West  of  the  Eurotas. 

In  Arcadia:  in  the  S.W.,  Lycseus  Mons;  in  N.W,, 
Erymanthus,  (here  Hercules  slew  the  wild  boar);  to^ 
wards  the  S. ,  M  se  n  a  1  u  s,  Roino  ;  P  a  r  n  o  n,  Malevo. 

RIVERS.  —  In  Thessalia:  1.  Pen e us,  Salamhria,  from  Mt. 
Pindus,  flowing  through  the  lovely  vale  of  Tempe,  falls  into 
the  Thermaicus  Sinus,  Gulf  of  Saloniki ;  it  receives  on  the 


36  GEOGRAPHY. 

North  the  Tit  are  si  us,  on  the  South  the  Enipeus  and 
Apidanus.  2.  Spercheus,  EUada,  from  the  West,  falls 
into  Sinus  Maliacus,  Bay  of  Zeitoun. 

In  Epirus:  1.  Aracthus,  Arta,  from  the  N.,  falls  into 
Sinus  Ambracius,  Gulf  of  Arta,  2.  Acheron,  and  its 
tributary  Cocytus,  fall  into  the  Glykys  Portus  or  Har- 
bour. Northward,  Thy  am  is,  Kalamas,  falls  into  the 
Ionian  Sea,  opposite  to  Corey ra,  Corfu. 

In  Acarnania:  Achelous,  Aspro  Fotamo,  from  Mt. 
Pindus,  flows  southward,  divides  ^tolia  from  Acarnania, 
and  falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Patras. 

In  JEtojaa:  Evenus,  Fidhari,  from  Mt.  (Eta,  falls  into 
the  Gulf  of  Patras. 

In  Doris:  Cephisus  Major,  Mavronero,  flows  through 
Phocis  and  Boeotia,  and  falls  into  Copais  L.,  Lake  Topo- 
lias. 

In  Bgeotia:  Asopus,  Asopo,  falls  into  the  sea  opposite 
to  Euboea,  the  island  Negropont  Ismenus,  into  which 
the  brook  Dirce  flows,  falls  into  L.  Ilylica.  Permessus 
and  Hippocrene,  or  "fountain  of  the  horse,^'  falls  into 
Copais  L. 

In  Attica:  Cephisus  Minor,  from  Mons  Pentelicus, 
and  Hiss  us,  from  Mons  Hymettus,  flow  South  into  Saro- 
nicus  Sinus. 

In  AcHAiA :  Crathis,  Crata,  (into  which  the  Styx 
flows),  and  Selinus,  Vosiitza,  fall  into  the  Corinthian 
Gulf.     Pirus,  Kameniiza,  falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Patras. 

In  Elis:  Peneus,  lliaco,  from  Mons  Erymanthus,  falls 
into  Ionium  Mare.  Alpheus,  Rouphia,  rising  in  Arcadia^ 
and  receiving  from  the  North  the  La  don  and  He  lis  son, 
falls  into  the  Ionian  Sea. 

In  Messenia:  P  amis  us,  Pirnatza,  from  Mt.  Lycaeus, 
and  Neda,  Buzi,  between  Elis  and  Messenia,  fall  into  the 
Ionian  Sea. 

In  Laconia  :  Eurotas,  Basilipotamo,  from  the  N.,  falls 
into  Laconicus  Sinus,  GuJf  of  Kolokythia. 

In  Argolis  :  Inachus,  Banitza,  falls  into  Argolicus 
Sinus,  €hdf  of  Napoli. 


GEOGRAPHY.  37 

LAKES.  —  Copais  L.,  Lake  TopoUas,  in  Boeotia,  (famed  for 
its  eels,  and  subterranean  communication  with  the  Euboean 
Sea) ;  Acherusia  L.,  in  the  S.W.  of  Epirus  ;  L.  Tricho- 
nis,  in  ^tolia ;  L.  Baebeis,  in  the  East  of  Thessaly;  L. 
Stymphalis,  in  the  North  of  Arcadia. 

PIIOMONTORIES.— -S.E.  of  Thessalia,  Magnesise  Prom., 
Cape  St.  George;  S.E.  of  Attica,  Sunium  Prom.,  Cape 
Colonna;  S.E.  of  Argolis,  Scyllasum  Prom.,  Cape  Skillo; 
S.E.  of  Laconia,  Male  a  Prom.,  Cape  Maleo  or  St.  Angelo; 
S.W.  of  Laconia,  Taenarum  Prom.,  Cape  Matapan;  S.W. 
of  Messenia,  Acritas  Prom.,  Cape  Gallo ;  N.W.  of  Elis, 
Chelonatas  Prom.,  Cape  Tornese;  N.W.  of  Achaia, 
Araxus  Prom.,  Cape  Kologria ;  N.  of  Achaia,  Chium 
Prom.,  Castello  di  Morea,  opposite  to  this  in  the  S.  of 
^tolia,  Anti-Rhium  Prom.,  Castello  Rumeli;  N.W.  of 
Acarnania,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Ambracian  Gulf,  Ac- 
tium  Prom.,  La  Punta,  (battle,  b.c.  31,  Augustus  defeats 
Antony  and  Cleopatra.) 

DIVISIONS.  — Northern  Greece.— 1.  Thessalia;  2.  Epi- 
rus. Central  Greece.  —  1.  Acarnania;  2.  ^tolia;  3. 
Doris;  4.  Locris;  5.  Phocis;  6.  Bceotia;  7.  Attica; 
8.  Me  gar  is.  Southern  Greece  or  Peloponnesus,  Morea. 
—  1.  Achaia;  2.  Elis;  3.  Messenia;  4.  Laconia;  5. 
Argolis;  6.  Arcadia;  7.  Sicyonia;  8.  Corinthia. 

THESSALIA.  —  Boundaries.  —  N.,  Macedonia;  E.,  ^geum 
Mare ;  S.,  Phocis,  Doris,  iEtolia ;  W.,  Epirus. 

Divisions.  —  N.,  Pelasgiotis;  E.,  Magnesia;  S.E., 
Phthiotis;  S.,  ^nianes;  S.W.,  Dolopia;  N.W.,  Hes- 
tiaeotis;  in  the  Centre,  Thessaliotis. 

Cities.  —  Larissa,  Larza,  the  Capital,  on  the  Peneus. 
Pharsalus,  Pharsa,  (battle,  b.c.  48,  Csesar  defeated  Pom- 
pey).  Cynocephalae,  (battle,  B.C.  197,  Philip  defeated 
by  Cons.  Flaminius).  Anticyra,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Spercheus.  Pherag,  Valcstino ;  noted  for  its  tyrants. 
Lamia,  Zeitoun ;  near  the  mouth  of  the  Spercheus,  (war 
between  Antipater  and  the  Athenians,  B.C.  323).  lolcos, 
4 


S8  G  E  O  a  R  A  P  H  Y  . 

N.  of  the  Pagasaeus  Sinus,  (the  city  of  Pelias  and  Jason, 
from  which  the  Argonauts  sailed  in  quest  of  the  Golden 
Fleece). 

EPIRUS.  —  Boundaries.  —  N.,   Illyria;   E.,  Macedonia  and 
Thessalia ;  S.,  Acarnania ;  W.,  Ionium  Mare. 

Divisions.  —  N.W.,  Chaonia;  S.E.,  Molossis;  S.W., 
Thesprotia. 

Cities. — Ambracia,  Arta,  (the  residence  of  Pyrrhus), 
on  the  Aracthus.  Nicopolis  (built  by  Augustus,  in  me- 
mory of  his  victory  at  Actium).  Do  don  a,  on  the  borders 
of  Molossis  and  Thesprotia,  (famed  for  its  oracle  of  Zeus, 
the  most  ancient  in  Greece). 

ACARNANIA.  —  Boundaries.  —  N.,  Ambracius    Sinus  and 
Epirus ;  E.,  River  Achelous  ;  W.,  Ionium  Mare. 

Cities.  —  Stratus,  on  the  Achelous,  the  Capital.  Ac- 
tium, on  a  promontory  of  the  same  name,  (near  which 
Augustus  defeated  Antony  and  Cleopatra  in  a  naval  en- 
gagement, B.C.  31). 

iETOLIA.  —  Boundaries.  —  N.,  Thessalia  and  Epirus;  E., 
Doris  and  Locris;  S.,  Sinus  Corinthiacus ;  W.,  R.  Achelous. 
Cities.  —  T  her  ma  vel  Thermum,  the  place  of  meeting 
of  the  ^tolian  league.  C a  15' don,  the  city  of  Tydeus  and 
Diomedes,  (in  the  vicinity  of  this  city  the  celebrated  Caly- 
donian  hunt  took  place). 

DORIS. — Boundaries. — N.,  Thessalia;  E.,  Phocis;  S.,  Locris; 
W.,  ^tolia. 

Cities.  —  Four  small  cities  which  gave  the  name  of  Te- 
trapolis  to  the  country,  Erineus,  Boium,  Pindus, 
Cytinium. 

LOCRIS  was  divided  into  two  districts,  inhabited  by  thite 
tribes. 

DISTRICT  I.— Boundaries.— ^.,  Doris;  E.,  Phocis;  S., 
Sinus  Corinthiacus;  W.,  iEtolia.  Inhabited  by  OZOLIAN 
LOCRIANS.  Chief  Cities. — Amphissa,  Salona;  Nau- 
paotus,  Lepanto. 


GEOGRAPHY.  39 ' 

DISTRICT  IL— Boundaries.— N.,  Thessaly ;  E.,  Euboean 
Sea  and  Malian  Gulf;  S.,  Phocis ;  W.,  Doris  and  Phocis. 
Inhabited  S.  by  OPUNTIAN  LOCRIANS.  City:  Opus, 
Talanda.  Inhabited  N.  by  EPICNEMIDIAN  LOCRIANS 
as  far  as  Thermopylae,  (a  celebrated  pass,  where  Leo- 
nidas  and  300  Spartans  fell,  after  a  gallant  defence  against 
the  mighty  army  of  Xerxes,  B.C.  480).  Cities:  Phronlum, 
Bomani,  Nicaea,  and  Scar  phi  a. 

PHOOIS.  —  Bowidaries,  —  N.,  Locri  Epicnemidii  and  Doris; 
E.,  >tjevtia ;  S.,  Sinus  Corinthiacus  ;  W.,  Locris. 

Citteo.  —  Delphi,  or  Pytho,  Castri,  on  the  western  de- 
clivity i>\  M.t.  Parnassus,  between  its  two  peaks,  (famed 
for  the  'S^Mllible"  oracle  of  Apollo,  and  celebrated  as 
the  place  of  meeting  of  the  Amphictyons,  and  of  the  cele- 
bration of  tn<3  Pythian  games) ;  Crissa,  or  Crisa,  S.W. 
of  Delphi;  Eiatea,  Elephta,  N.  of  the  Cephissus ;  Anti- 
cyra,  Aspra  ISpitia,  in  the  South,  on  the  coast,  (famed  for 
its  hellebore,  the  cure  for  madness  among  the  ancients). 

BCEOTIA.  —  Boundaries.  —  N.  and  E.,  Euboicum  Mare;  S., 
Mountain-chain  of  Parnes  and  Cithaeron,  separating  Bceotia 
from  Attica ;  W.,  Phocis. 

Cities.  —  Theba3,  Tliibai  (founded  by  the  Phoenicians 
under  Cadmus,  thence  called  Cadmea ;  it  was  destroyed  by 
Alexander,  b.c.  335).  Orchomenus,  Scripu,  near  the 
Lake  Copais,  with  a  temple  of  the  Graces,  (victory  of  Sulla, 
B.C.  86).  Platseae,  or  Platasa,  XoJcla,  near  Mt.  Cithaeron, 
(battle,  B.C.  479,  Mardonius  defeated).  Thespiae,  at  the 
foot  of  Mt.  Helicon,  sacred  to  the  Muses.  Leuctra,  Lefka, 
S.E.  of  ThespiaD,  (battle,  b.c.  371,  Thebans  overcame  the 
Spartans).  Tanagra,  Grimada,  E.  of  Thebae,  (battle, 
B.C.  457,  Athenians  defeated).  Delium,  Dilessi,  on  the 
E.  coast,  (battle,  b.c.  424).  Haliartus,  Mazi,  on  Lake 
Copais,  (battle,  b,  c.  395 ;  destroyed  by  the  Romans,  b.  c. 
171).  Co  rone  a,  S.W.  of  Lake  Copais  (Boeotians  over- 
came Athenians,  b.  c.  447 ;  Agesilaus  defeated  allied 
Greeks,  B.C.  394).    Chaeronea,  Capurna,  on  the  Cephissus, 


40  GEOGRAPHY 

(battles,  B.C.  447;  Philip  conquers  the  Greeks,  b. 0.338; 
Sulla^s  victory,  B.C.  8G).  Ascra,  near  Mt.  Helicon,  the 
birth-place  of  Hesiod. 

ATTICA.  —  Boundaries.  —  N.,  Boeotia  ;   E.,  ^geum  Mare, 
S.,  Saronicus  Sinus ;  W.,  Megaris. 

Cities.  —  Athenae,  Athens,  between  the  rivers  Cephissus 
and  Ilissus,  the  most  celebrated  city  of  antiquity  for  learn- 
ing and  the  liberal  arts  ;  it  consisted  of  two  parts,  viz. :  — • 
1.  The  City;  2.  Its  three  ports,  Piraeus,  Pirceus,  Pha- 
lerum,  and  Munychia,  united  to  the  city  by  two  long 
w^alls,  called  "Longi  Muri,"  sixty  feet  in  height  (vide 
"  Topography^^  for  an  account  of  Public  Buildings,  &c.). 
E  leu  sis,  Lepsina,  N.W.  of  Athens,  famous  for  its  temple 
and  mysteries  of  Demeter  or  Ceres.  Marathon,  Mara- 
tJionay  N.E.  of  Athens,  (celebrated  battle,  Athenians  and 
Plataeans,  under  Miltiades,  routed  the  Persians,  B.C.  490), 
Phyle,  Fili,  N.W.  of  Athens,  (here  Thrasybulus  assem- 
bled the  Patriots  opposed  to  the  thirty  Tyrants,  B.C.  404). 
Sunium,  Colonna,  on  a  prom,  of  the  same  name  in  the 
extreme  S.  of  Attica. 

MEGARIS.  —  Bcundaries.  —  N.,  Boeotia;  E.,  Attica  and  Sa- 
ronicus Sinus  ;  S.,  Corinthia ;  AV.,  Sinus  Corinthiacus. 
Cities.  —  Me  gar  a,  Megara  ;  Nisa3a,  on  the  coast. 

Peloponnesus. 

ACHAIA.  —  Boundaries.  —  N.,  Sinus  Corinthiacus;  E.,  Co- 
rinthia ;  S.,  Arcadia  and  Elis.* 

Cities. — Helice,  on  the  north  coast,  the  ancient  Capital, 
(engulphed  by  an  earthquake,  b.c.  373);  ^gium,  Vos* 
iitza,  (here  the  meetings  of  the  Achaean  league  were  held); 
Patrae,  Fati-as,  a  sea-port. 

ELIS. —  Boundaries.  —  N.,  Achaia  ;   E.,  Arcadia;   S.,  Mes- 
senia  ;  W.,  Ionium  Mare. 

Divisions.  —  1.  Elis  Proper,  N.;  2.  Pisatis  w'y^f 
Olympia,  Middle;  3,  Triphylia,  South. 


aEOGRAPHY.  41 

Cities. — Elis,  on  the  Peneus.  N.W.,  Cyllene,  on  the 
coast.  Pisa,  on  the  Alpheus,  (near  this  the  plain  of 
OLYMPIA,  where  the  Olympian  games  were  celebrated. 
Here  was  the  sacred  grove  *'Altis/'  which,  with  the 
neighbourhood,  were  adorned  with  temples,  statues,  &c. 
The  *'Altis"  was  inclosed  by  a  wall;  it  contained  the  fol- 
lowing temples:  I.  The  Olympieum,  in  which  was  the 
famous  statue  of  Zeus,  by  Phidias,  made  of  ivory  and  gold ; 
II.  The  Ilergeum,  or  Temple  of  Juno;  III.  The  Metroum. 
Public  buildings:  The  Thesauri  of  the  states  ;  The  Pry- 
tan  eum,  in  which  the  Olympic  victors  dined;  The  Bou- 
leuterion,  or  council-hall,  in  which  all  the  regulations 
were  made.  The  chief  buildings  without  the  Altis  were 
the  Stadium,  for  gymnastic  exercises,  and  the  Hipp5- 
dromus,  for  racing).     Pylos,  in  Triphj^ia. 

MESSENIA.  —  Boundaries.  —  N.,  Triphylia  and  Arcadia ; 
E.,  Laconia ;  S.,  Messeniacus  Sinus ;  W.,  Mare  Ionium. 

Cities.  —  Pylos,  Navarino,  in  the  S.W.,  (the  city  of 
Nestor);  Ithome,  in  the  centre,  on  a  hill  of  the  same 
name  ;  near  which  was  Messene,  ruins,  the  Capital,  built 
by  Epaminondas ;  Ira,  in  the  N.,  (which  Aristomenes 
defended  against  the  Spartans  for  eleven  years). 

LACONIA.  —  Boundaries.  —  N.,  Arcadia  and  Argolis;  E., 
Myrtoum  Mare  ;  S.,  Laconicus  Sinus  ;  W.,  Messenia. 

Cities.  —  Lacedaemon,  or  Sparta,  Sparta,  on  the 
Eurotas,  the  Capital  of  the  most  powerful  state  in  Greece, 
(the  city  of  Lycurgus,  the  lawgiver) ;  S.  of  Lacedsemon, 
Amycloe,  with  a  temple  to  Apollo;  Helos,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Eurotas,  (its  inhabitants,  the  Helots,  were 
reduced  to  slavery  by  the  Spartans);  Sellasia,  (battle, 
B.  c.  222,  Athenians,  under  Antigonus  Doson,  defeated 
Cleomenes,  king  of  Sparta). 

ARGOLIS.  —  Boundaries.  —  N.,  Corinthia  and  Saronicus  Si- 
nus; E.,  Myrtoum  Mare;  S.,  Argolicus  Sinus  and  LacSnia; 
W.,  Arcadia. 

4* 


42  GEOGRArUT, 

Cities.  —  Argos,  Argos,  on  the  Inachus,  one  of  the  most 
ancient  cities  in  Greece;  S.E.  of  Argos,  Nauplia,  Napoli 
dl  Romania,  the  port  of  Argos;  N.  of  Argos,  Mycenae, 
ruins,  (the  city  of  Agamemnon,  noted  for  its  Cyclopean 
walls;  destroyed  by  Argives,  b.c.  468);  Tiryns,  ruinSy 
S.E.  of  Argos,  (Hercules  educated  here,  hence  called  Ti- 
ry n thins ) ;  Nemea,  ruins,  N.\y.  of  Mycenae,  (Hercules 
killed  the  lion,  vide  first  labour ;  triennial  games  cele- 
brated in  consequence);  Epidaurus,  Epidauro,  in  the 
district  of  Epidauria,  on  the  Saronic  Gulf,  (famed  for  a 
temple  of  ^sculapius) ;  Troezene,  Demala,  in  the  district 
Trcezenia,  in  the  S.E.  of  Argolis ;  Hermione,  Kastri, 
in  the  district  Hermionis,  in  the  South. 

ARCADIA.  —  Boundaries.  —  N.,  Achaia;  E.,  Corinthia  and 
Argolis ;  S.,  Laconia  and  Messenia ;  W.,  Tryphylia  and 
Elis. 

Cities.  —  Man  tinea,  Paleopoli,  in  the  East,  (battle,  b.c. 
418,  Athenians  defeated;  battle,  B.C.  362,  Epaminondas 
slain);  Tegea,  Piali,  S.E.  of  Mantinea;  Megalopolis, 
ruins,  on  the  Helisson,  founded,  by  the  advice  of  Epami 
nondas,  B.C.  371,  (the  birth-place  of  Polybius). 

CORINTHIA.  —  Boundaries. — N.,  Megaris  and  Sinus  Corin 
thi3,cus  ;  E.,  Saronicus  Sinus  ;  S.,  Argolis ;  W.,  Achaia. 

Cities.  —  Corinthus,  Corinth,  the  Capital,  built  at  th'® 
foot  of  a  steep  mountain,  on  which  stood  the  Acro-Corin- 
thus,  the  strongest  citadel  in  Greece,  the  key  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus ;  (destroyed  by  Mummius,  the  Roman  Consul, 
B.C.  146).  At  the  narrowest  part  of  the  Isthmus  stood 
Fanum  Neptuni,  a  temple  of  Neptune,  near  which  tha 
Isthmian  games  were  celebrated  (vide  Antiq.).  On  the 
Asopus :  Phlius,  the  Capital  of  the  independent  state, 
Phliasia. 

SICYONIA. —  Boundaries. — N.,  Sinus  Corinthiacus ;  E.,  Co- 
rinthia ;  S.,  Arcadia ;  W.,  Achaia. 

(7%. -—S  icy  on,  ruins,  on  the  north  coast,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Asopus. 


Cf  E  0  G  R  A  PHY.  43 


The  Greek  Islands. 

IN  THE  IONIAN  SEA.— Corey r a,  Corfu;  Cap.,  Corcyra. 
L  e  u  c  a  d  i  a,  Santa  Maura ;  Cap.,  Leucas.  Ithaca,  Theaki; 
Cap.,  Ithaca.  Cephallenia,  Cephalonia.  Cities,  —  Ce- 
phallenia  and  Same.  Zaeynthus,  Zante;  Cap.,  Zacyn- 
thus.  Teleboides  Insulge,  between  Leucadia  and  Epi- 
rns.     Cythera,  Cerigo,  (sacred  to  Venus). 

IN  THE  ^GEAN  SEA.— I.  In  the  Western  part.  Hydrea, 
Hydra.  Calauria,  Calauria,  (Demosthenes  poisoned  him- 
self, b.c.  322).  JEi gir\?i,  Egina.  S al am i s,  Cb^oiwi,  (battle, 
B.  c.  480,  Persian  fleet  defeated  by  Athenians,  under  The- 
mistocles).  Euboea,  Negropont,  Artemisium  Prom., 
in  the  N.,  (battle,  b.c.  480);  Cities:  1.  C  hale  is,  Negro- 
ponte,  the  Capital;  2.  Eretria.     Scyros,  Skyro. 

II.  In  the  Northern  part.  Lemnos,  Lemno,  (sacred  to 
Vulcan,  who  is  said  to  have  fallen  on  this  island,  when 
hurled  from  heaven  by  Zeus).  Imbros,  Imhro.  Sa mo- 
th race,  Samothi^aki.  Thasos,  Thaso^  anciently  famous 
for  its  gold-mines.  Tenedos,  Tenedos,  near  tlie  coast  of 
Troas. 

III.  In  the  Eastern  part.  Lesbos,  Mijtilene,  (noted  for 
its  wine) ;  Cities :  1.  Mitylene  (the  birth-place  of  Sappho, 
Alcaeus,  Pittacus,  &c.) ;  2.  Methymna.  Chios,  Skio^ 
(famed  for  its  wine).  Samos,  Samo;  Cap.,  Samos ; 
(sacred  to  Juno,  the  native  city  of  Pythagoras).  Icaros, 
or-ia,  Nikaria,  which,  with  the  adjoining  sea,  derived  its 
name  from  Icarus,  the  son  of  Deedalus  (vide  Mythol.). 
Patmos,  Patino  or  Fatmos,  (to  which  St.  John  was 
banished).  Leros,  Lero.  Cos,  Kos,  (the  birth-place  of 
Hippocrates  the  physician,  and  Apelles  the  painter) 
E.  hod  us,  Rhodes;  Cap.,  Rhodes,  in  the  port  of  which 
stood  the  Colossus.  Car  pa  thus,  Scarpanto,  whence  Car- 
pathium  Mare. 

IV.  In  the  Southern  part,  THE  CYCLADES.     Delos, 
-  Delo,  in  the  Centre,  with  Mt.  Cynthus,  (the  birth-place 

of  Apollo  and  Diana) ;  Naxos,  Naxo  or  Naxia ;  (sacred  to 


44  GEOGRAPHY. 

Bacchus);  Paros,  Paro,  (famed  for  its  white  marble). 
N. :  Andros,  Andro ;  Tenos,  Teno ;  Ceos,  Zea;  Cyth- 
nos,  Thermia;  Syros,  Syr  a;  Myconos,  Mijconi;  Serl- 
phus,  Serpho.  S. :  Melos,  Milo ;  Siphnus,  Siphno; 
I  OS,  Nio;  Amorgus,  Amor  go;  Thera,  Santorin;  A  sty- 
pa  laea,  Stampalia.  The  name  SPORADES  was  applied 
to  those  islands  not  lying  round  Delos,  but  scattered  apart. 
V.  South  of  the  Cyclades.  Creta,  Candia  ;  Cap.,  Gnos- 
sus,  (the  residence  of  Minos) ;  N.W.,  Cydonia,  Khaniay 
(famed  for  its  archers)  ;  S.W.  of  Cnossus,  Gortyna.  Mons 
Ida  in  the  centre  of  the  island ;  E.,  Mons  Dicte,  in  a  cave 
Df  which  Jupiter  was  brought  up. 


BRITANNIA  or  ALBION. 

Great  Britain. 

BOUNDARIES.  — N.,  Mare  Pigrum,  North  Sea;  E.,  Ger. 
manicus  Oceanus,  German  Ocean;  S.,  Fretum  Gallicum, 
Straits  of  Dover,  and  Oceanus  Britannicus,  English  Charir 
nel;  W.,  Oceanus  Hibernicus,  Irish  Sea,  and  Verginium 
Mare,  St.  George^ s  Channel. 

RIVERS,  &c. — Tames  is,  Thames;  Sabrina,  Severn;  An- 
tona,  Nen;  Trivona,  Trent;  Abus,  Humher ;  Tina, 
Tyne ;  I  tun  a,  Eden;  Deva,  Dee.  In  Scotland:  Bodo- 
tria,  Forth;  Glotta,  Clyde;  Tavus,  Tay ;  Metaris 
^stuarium.  The  Wash;  Bodotrise  -^st..  Firth  of 
Forth;  Glottae  ^st.,  Firtli  of  Clyde ;  Itunge  ^st.,  Solr 
way  Friths 

PROMONTORIES.— 0 cell um  Prom.,  Spurn  Head;  Can- 
tium  Prom.,  North  Foreland;  Ocrinum  Prom.,  Liiard 
Point;  Bolerium  Prom.,  Land^s  End. 

DIVISIONS.  —  vS.,  Britannia  Prima;  Centre,  Flavia 
Cassariensis;   W.,  Britannia   Secunda,   Wales;   N., 


GEOGRAPHY.  45 

Maxima  Gsesariensis  ;  N.  of  the  Wall  of  Severus,  Va- 
le nti  a,  South  part  of  Scotland;  N.  of  the  Wall  of  Anto- 
ninus, Caledonia,  North  part  of  Scotland. 

TRIBES.  —  S.  of  the  Thames:  Cantii,  Kent;  Regni,  Surrey 
and  Sussex;  Belgse,  Hants,  Wilts,  and  Somerset;  Atre- 
batii,  Berks;  Durotrlges,  Dorset;  Dumnonii,  Devon  and 
Cornwall.  N.  of  the  Thames:  Trinobantcs,  Middlesex 
and  Essex;  Simeni,  vel  Iceni,  Suffolk  and  Norfolk; 
Cattieuchlani,  Herts,  Bucks,  &c. ;  Dobuni,  Oxon  and 
Gloucester;  Si  lures,  South  Wales;  Ordovlces,  North 
Wales;  Gornavii,  Cheshire,  Salop,  Stafford,  Worcester, 
Notts,  &c.  ;  Coritani,  Lincoln  and  Leicester;  Brigantes, 
York,  Durham,  Cumberland,  and  Westmo7'eland. 

TOWN'S. — S.  of  the  Thames :  Durovernum,  Cajiterhury  ;  Ru- 
tupise,  Richhorough ;  Venta  Belgarum,  Winchester;  Reg- 
num,  Chichester;  Aquae  Solis,  Bath;  Uxela,  Exeter.  N. 
of  the  Thames :  Londinium,  London ;  Verulamium,  St. 
Alban's;  Glevum,  Gloucester;  Corinium,  Cirencester;  Isca 
Silurum,  Caerleon;  Lindum,  Lincoln;  Deva  or  Deona, 
Chester;  Eboracum,  York. 

Hadrian's  Wall,  between  the  mouth  of  the  Tyne  and 
the  Solway  Frith;  erected  a.d.  121.  Wall  of  Severus; 
erected  a.d.  209.  Rampart  of  Antoninus,  between 
the  Friths  of  Forth  and  Solway  ;  erected  a.  d.  140. 

ISLANDS.— Or  cades,  Orkneys;  'Khndes,  Hebrides;  Thule, 
Shetland  Isles {2);  Mona  (of  Caesar),  Ifan;  Mona  (of 
Tacitus),  Anglesey;  Cas  site  rides,  Scilly  Isles,  (famous 
for  their  tin) ;  V  e c  t i  s,  Isle  of  Wight;  H i b  e  r  n  i a,  Ireland; 
Cap.,  E  b  1  a  n  a,  Dublin. 


ASIA. 


/v>->r^/^/^^w•'' 


COUNTRIES.  —  Asia  Minor,  Anatolia,  Rourriy  and  Kara 
■mania;  Syria,  Si/ria  and  Palestine;  Arabia,  Arabia; 
Sarmatia  Asiatica,  S.F,  part  of  Eiissia  in  Europe; 
Colchis,  G Uriel,  Mingrelia,  and  Imeritia;  Iberia,  Geor- 
gia ;  A 1  b  a  n  i  a,  Shir  van  and  pai^t  of  Daghistan ;  Armenia, 
Armenia  and  part  of  Georgia ;  Mesopotamia,  Algesira; 
Chaldaea,  Irak  Arabi;  Assyria,  Kurdistan;  Media, 
N.  W.  part  of  Persia ;  S  u  s  i  a  n  a,  Khuzistan  ;  Persia,  S.W, 
part  of  Persia ;  Hyrcania  and  Parthia,  part  of  TurJcis- 
tan;  Aria,  E.  part  of  Khorassan  and  iV.  part  of  Afghan- 
istan;  Bactriana,  Bokhara;  Car  mania,  Kirma7i;  Ge- 
drosia,  S.  part  of  Beloochistan ;  Sogdiana,  part  of 
Tiirkistan  and  Bokhara ;  India,  Hindostan,  &c. ;  S  c  y  t  h  i  a, 
Tartary. 

MOUNTAINS.  —  Caucasus,  (between  Pontus  Euxinus  and 
Caspium  Mare) ;  Taurus  M on s,  in  Asia  Minor ;  Emodi 
Montes,  Himalayah  Mountains  in  the  N.  of  India. 

SEAS,  GULFS,  &c.  —  Mare  Hyrcanum  vel  Caspium, 
Caspian  Sea  and  Sea  of  Aral  [t)  ;  Sinus  Arabicus,  Red 
Sea;  Erythrseum  Mare,  Arabian  Sea;  Sinus  Per- 
sic u  s,  Persian  Gulf;  Gangeticus,  Bay  of  Bengal ;  I n- 
dicus  Ocean  us,  Indian  Ocean. 

RIVERS.  —  1.  Rha,  Volga  (flowing  into  the  Caspian  Sea); 

2.  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  falling  into  the  Persian  Gulf, 

3.  Oxus,  Jihon;  4.  Jaxartes,  Sihon,  falling  into  the  Sea 

(46) 


GEOGRAPHY.  47 

of  Aral,  (but  supposed  by  the  ancients  to  fall  into  Mare 
Caspium) ;  5.  Indus,  Indus,  with  its  five  tributaries; 
6.  Ganges,  Ganges, 

ISLANDS.  —  Cyprus,  Cyprus,  in  the  Mediterranean  ;  T  a- 
p  rob  an  a,  Ceylon,  S.  of  Hindostan. 


ASIA  MINOR. 

Anatolia,  Bourn,  arid  Karamania, 

BOUNDARIES.  — N.,  Pontus  Euxinus,  Black  Sea;  E., 
Euphrates  and  Syria;  S.,  Mare  Internum,  Mediter- 
ranean; "VY.,  -^geum  Mare,  and  Propontis,  Sea  of 
Marmora, 

GULFS.  —  N.,  Amisenus  Sinus.  AY.,  Adramyttenus  Sinus, 
Gidf  of  Adrymitti;  Smyrnaeus  Sinus,  Gulf  of  Smyrna; 
S.,  Glaucus  Sinus,  Gulf  of  Maori;  Issicus  Sinus,  Gulf  of 
Scanderoon. 

MOUNTAINS.  — Olympus,  a  chain  extending  from  N.W. 
to  N.E.,  passing  through  Galatia,  Bithynia,  and  Paphla- 
gonia;  Ida  in  Troas ;  Dindymus  in  Phrygia,  sacred  to 
Cybele,  (hence  called  Dindymene) ;  Tmolus  in  Lydia 
(famed  for  its  safi'ron  and  wine);  S.W.  of  this  My c ale, 
(near  which  the  Persian  fleet  was  defeated  by  the  Greek, 
B.C.  479);  Cragus  in  Lycia;  Taurus,  extending  through 
Asia  Minor,  from  W.  to  E.,  to  the  countries  beyond  the 
Euphrates;  Mons  Argaeus,  ErdgisJi  Dagh,  in  Cappa- 
docia. 

RIVERS.  —  Flowing  into  Pontus  Euxinus:  1.  Therm odon, 
Tliermeh;  2.  Iris,  Tesliel  Irmak ;  3.  Halys,  Kisil  Irmak : 
4.  Parthenius;  5.  Sangarius,  Sakariyeh.  Flowing  into 
the  Propontis:  1.  Rhyndacus,  Edrenos ;  2.  Granicus, 
(battle,  B.C.  334,  Alexander  defeated  the  Persian  Satraps). 
Flowing  into  the  ^Egean  Sea:   1.  Scamander  or  Xan- 


48  GEOGRAPHY. 

thus,  Minderehy  (joined  by  the  Smiois) ;  2.  Ilerraus, 
Gliiediz-Chai,  (with  its  tributary  Pactolus,  famed  for  ita 
golden  sands);  3.  Caystrus,  (abounding  in  swans);  4. 
Mseander,  Mendereh,  (proverbial  for  its  windings).  Flow- 
ing into  the  Mediterranean:  1.  Xanthus,  Eclien-Chai; 
2.  Oestrus,  Ak-Su;  3.  Eurymedqn,  Kapri-Su,  (battle, 
B.C.  469,  Cimon  defeated  the  Persians) ;  4.  Calycadnus, 
Giuk-Sooyoo ;  5.  Cydnus,  Tersus-Chai^  (famed  for  the 
clearness  and  coolness  of  its  water);  5.  Sarus,  Sihan; 
6.  Pyramus,  JlJian. 

LAKE.  —  Tatta  Pal  us,  Tiiz  Gdl,  in  Phrygia,  a  great  salt 
lake. 

PROMONTORIES.— N.,  Carambis  Prom.,  Cape  Karempe, 
At  the  entrance  of  the  Hellespont:  Rhoeteum  and  Si- 
geum  Prom.  ^Y.,  Trogilium  Prom.,  C.  St.  Mari/,  near 
which  was  the  PANIONIUM,  or  place  of  assembly  for  the 
twelve  Ionian  states;  Triopium  Prom.,  C.  iTr/o,  with 
a  temple  of  Apollo,  (surnamed  Triopius),  the  place  of 
meeting  for  the  six  Dorian  states,  or  "  Hexapolis,^^  after- 
wards reduced  to  five,  "Pentapolis.^'  S.,  Sacrum  Prom., 
and  Anemurium  Prom.,  C.  Anamur. 

DIVISIONS.  —  N.,  Bithynia,  Paphlagonia,  Pontus; 
W.,  Mysia,  Lydia,  Caria;  S.,  Lycia,  Pamphylia, 
Cilicia;   Central,  Phrygia,  Galatia,  Cappadocia. 

BITII Y  NI A .  —  Cities. — H  eraclea  Pontic  a,  Harakli,  n  ear 
which  Acherusia  Chersonesus,  (with  a  cave  through 
which  Hercules  is  said  to  have  descended  to  the  infernal 
regions  to  drag  up  Cerebus).  On  the  Thracian  Bosporus : 
1.  Chrysopolis,  Scutari;  2.  Chalcedon,  (or  the  city  of 
the  blind,  so  called  from  its  founders  having  overlooked 
the  more  delightful  situation  of  Byzantium).  On  the  Pro- 
pontis:  1.  Libyssa,  Geibuzeh,  (where  w^as  the  tomb  cf 
Hannibal);  2.  Nicomedia,  Izmid,  the  Capital  of  the 
kings  of  Bithynia,  (here  Hannibal  died,  B.C.  183).  On 
L.  Ascanius,  L.  of  Iznik:  Nicaea,  Iznik,  (first  Christian 
oecumenical  council  held,  a.d.  325). 


GEOGRAPHY.  49 

PAPHL AGuNI A.  —  Cities,  —  On  the  N.  coast :  S  i  n  o  p  e, 
Sinoub  or  Sinope,  (the  birth-phice  of  Diogenes,  the  Cynic 
philosopher);  Cytorus,  Ki/dros,  famous  for  its  tox- 
wood. 

PONTUS. —  Cities. — On  the  coast:  1.  Trapezus,  Tiehizond; 
2.  Cerasus,\fir/iere50im,  (from  which  the  cherry-tree  was 
first  introduced  into  Italy,  by  Lucullus) ;  3-.  Polcmo- 
n  i  u  m,  Polemon ;  4.  T  h  e  m  i  s  c  y  r  a,  ThermeJi  ( ? )  ( founded 
by  the  Amazons);  5.  Amisus,  Samsun,  (the  residence  of 
Mithridates).  Inland:  Zela,  ZiUeh,  (battle,  B.C.  47,  Caesar 
conquered  Pharnaces  ;  an  account  of  this  battle  Caesar  sent 
to  the  Senate  in  three  words,  viz.,  Veni,  Vidi,  Vici) ; 
Amasia,  Amasiah,  (the  birth-place  of  Mithridates  and 
Strabo  the  geographer);  Magnopolis,  (built  by  Mithri- 
dates and  Pompey). 

MYSIA,  with  TROAS  and  ^OLIS  or  IK.— Cities.  — In  the 
N. :  Cyzicus,  Bal  Kiz,  (on  an  island  of  the  same  name, 
unsuccessfully  besieged  by  Mithridates,  B.C.  75).  On  the 
Hellespont:  1.  Lampsacus,  Lapsaki,  (celebrated  for  its 
wine,  and  one  of  the  cities  assigned  to  Themistocles  for  his 
maintenance);  2.  Abydos,  Nagara ;  3.  Dardanus,  from 
which  arose  the  modern  name  Dardanelles.  At  the  foot 
of  Mt.  Ida,  Troja  or  Ilium,  Troy,  with  its  citadel  Per- 
gama;  at  the  head  of  a  bay  of  the  same  name,  Adra- 
myttium  or  eum,  Adramytti.  Inland,  on  the  Caicus: 
Pergamus  (on  or  os),  Bergama,  (celebrated  for  its 
library,  where  parchment  (Pergamenae  chartEc)  was  first 
used  in  writing ;  the  library  was  afterwards  added  to  that 
at  Alexandria). 

LYDIA  or  MiEONIA  with  lO^lk.  — Cities.  — On  the  coast: 
1.  Phocaea,  a  colony  from  which  was  founded  Massilia, 
Marseilles ;  2.  Smyrna,  Smyrna,  (one  of  the  seven  cities 
which  claimed  the  honour  of  being  the  birth-place  of 
Homer);  3.  Teos,  (the  birth-place  of  Anacreon);  4.  Col5- 
phon,  (famed  for  its  cavalry) ;  5.  Ephesus,  AyasaUik,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Cayster,  (famous  for  its  temple  to  Diana, 
5 


50  GEOGRAPHY. 

one  of  the  seveu  wonders).  Inland:  Magnesia,  (battle, 
B.C.  190,  Scipio  defeated  Antiochus)  ;  Sardes,  Sari,  on 
the  Pactolus,  (the  Capital  of  Croesus,  king  of  Lydia,  taken 
by  Cyrus,  b.c.  546). 

CARIA  with  DORIS.— Cities.— -On  the  Mseander:  Myu8. 
On  the  coast:  1.  Miletus,  (one  of  the  chief  cities  of  Asia 
Minor,  the  birth-place  of  Thales,  Anaximander,  and  other 
great  men);  2.  II  all  cam  ass  us,  Budi^um,  (the  birth-placo 
of  Herodotus  the  historian,  and  Dionysius  the  rhetorician, 
and  celebrated  for  the  tomb  of  Mausolus.  Opposite  to 
the  island  Cos:  C nidus),  (battle,  b.c.  394,  Pisander,  the 
Spartan  admiral,  defeated  by  Conon,  the  Athenian). 

LYCIA. — Xlities.  —  On  the  coast:  Telmessus,  Mucri.  (in- 
habitants famed  for  augury).  On  the  Xanthus:  X  an  thus, 
Gunik.  Near  the  mouth  of  the  river:  Pa  tar  a,  Paiaraj 
(with  a  famous  temple  and  oracle  of  Apollo).  On  the 
East:  Ph  as  el  is,  (the  head-quarters  of  the  pirates  beforo 
its  destruction  by  P.  Servilius  Isauricus). 

PAMPHYLIA  with  PISIDIA  and  ISAURIA.— ^ie^.— On 

the  S.  coast:  Attalia.  Inland:  P or ga,  (the  birth-place 
of  Apollonius  the  mathematician) ;  Selga,  the  chief  city 
in  Pisidia;  Is  aura,  chief  city  in  Isauria,  (taken,  B.C.  75, 
by  P.  Servilius,  who  thence  received  the  surname  Isau- 
ricus). 

CILICIA. — Divided  into  Cilicia  Trachea  or  Asp  era  and 
Cilicia  Campestris.  Cities.  —  In  C.  Aspera.  —  On  the 
coast:  1.  Selinus,  Selenti,  (where  the  Emperor  Trajan 
died,  A. D.  117);  2.  Seleucia,  Selefkeh;  3.  Corycus 
(famed  for  its  excellent  saffron).  In  C.  Campestris:  1. 
Soli,  also  called  Pompeiopolis;  2.  Tarsus,  Tersus,  on. 
the  Cydnus,  the  Capital  of  Cilicia,  (the  birth-place  of  the 
Apostle  Paul  and  many  distinguished  philosophers,  cele- 
brated for  the  study  of  philosophy  and  the  liberal  arts) ; 
3.  Issus,  ruins,  on  the  Issic  Gulf,  (battle,  b.c  333,  Alex- 
ander defeated  Darius). 


GEOGRAPHY.  51 

PHRYGIA  with  LYC AONIA.  —  Cities.  —  In  the  S.W.  -- On 

the  Lycus:  1.  Colossae,  (to  the  inhabitants  of  which  St. 
Paul  addressed  an  epistle);  2.  Laodicea;  3.  Apamea 
Cibotus.  Near  the  centre:  1.  Ipsus  (battle,  B.C.  301, 
Antigonus  and  Demetrius  defeated  by  Lysimachus  and 
Seleucus,  the  two  other  generals  of  Alexander) ;  2.  Syn- 
nada  (famed  for  its  marble).  In  Lycaonia:  1.  Iconium; 
2.  Lystra;  3.  Derbe  (vide  Acts  xiv.). 

OKLKTIK.— Cities. —  On  the  Sangarius:  1.  Gordium  (the 
ancient  Capital  of  Phrygia,  where  Alexander  cut  tho 
famous  "  Gordian  knot/'  on  which  its  destinies  were  sup- 
posed to  depend)  ;  2,  Pessinus  (the  chief  seat  of  the  wor- 
ship of  Cybele,  whose  image  was  removed  to  Rome  to 
satisfy  an  oracle  in  the  Sibylline  books).  Near  the  centre: 
Ancyra,  Angora,  (the  Capital  of  the  province  in  the  time 
of  Augustus). 

CAPPADOCIA  with  ARMENIA  MINOR.  —  Ctos.  —  Near 

the  centre,  at  the  foot  of  Mons  Argceus:  Ca3sarea  or 
Mazaca,  Kesarieh,  the  chief  city;  S.W.  of  this,  Tyana, 
in  the  district  Tyanitis,  (the  city  of  Apollonius  the  im- 
postor). In  Armenia  Minor:  1.  Nico polls,  Devriki; 
2.  Cabira  or  Sebaste,  Sivas. 

THE  SIX  DORIAN  STATES  ('^lexapolis'^),  which  met 
at  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Triopium  Prom.,  in  Doris 
(vide  Caria),  were,  I.  Lyndus;  2.  lalyssus;  3.  Camlrus  (in 
Rhodes) ;  4.  Cos  (in  the  island  of  Cos) ;  5.  Cnidus ;  6.  Ila- 
licarnassus  (in  Caria) ;  the  last  city  was  afterwards  ex- 
cluded from  the  number,  the  remaining  five  being  termed 
"Pentapolis.^^ 

THE  TWELVE  IONIAN  STATES,  which  held  their  meet- 
ings at  the  Pan  ionium,  near  Mt.  My  c  ale,  in  Ionia  (vide 
Lydia),  were,  I.  Miletus ;  2.  Myus ;  3.  Priene  (in  Caria) , 
4.  Ephesus ;  5.  Colophon ;  6.  Lebedos ;  7.  Teos ;  8.  Ery- 
thrae ;  9.  Clazomene ;  10.  Phocaea  (in  Lydia) ;  11.  Chios , 
and  12.  Samos  ;  Smyrna  from  the  ^olian  colony  increased 
the  number  to  thirteen. 


52  GEOGRAPHY 

THE  iEOLIAN  LEAGDE  (''Pangeolilm")  possessed 
twelve  cities,  which  met  at  Smyrna:  1.  Cyme;  2.  Larissae; 
3.  Neontichos;  4.  Temnus ;  5.  Cilia;  6.  Notium ;  7.  Mgi- 
russa;  8.  Pitane ;  9.  ^g9ea3 ;  10.  Myrina;  11.  Grynea;  12. 
Smyrna  (which  subsequently  became  an  Ionian  colony). 

THE  "SEVEN  CHURCHES  OF  ASIA.^'  — 1.  Ephesus; 
2.  Smyrna ;  3.  Pergamos ;  4.  Thyatira ;  5.  Sardis ;  6.  Phi- 
ladelphia ;  7.  Laodicea. 

Island. 

CYPRUS  (sacred  to  Venus),  separated  from  Asia  Minor  by 
Aulon  Cilicius.  Toivns.  —  On  the  AY.  coast:  1.  Paphos, 
Baffa;  Am  a  thus,  Limasol;  2.  Citium  (the  birth-place 
of  Zeno  the  Stoic  philosopher)  ;  E.,  Sal  am  is,  (said  to 
have  been  founded  by  Teucer) ;  N.,  L ape  thus  and  Soli. 
Inland:  1.  Tamasus  (famed  for  its  copper-mines);  2. 
I d a  1  i u m  ( sacred  to  Venus) .     Mountain,  —  Olympus. 


SYRIA  — PALiESTlNA. 

BOUNDARIES.— N.,  Amanus  Mons,  and  Taurus  Mons; 
E.,  R.  Euphrates  and  Arabia;  S.,  Arabia;  W.,  Mare 
Internum,  Mediterranean. 

MOUNTAINS. —  C as i us  Mons,  Jehel  Ohrah ;  Lebanon 
(famed  for  its  snowy  summits  and  its  cedars),  divided  into 
Lib  anus  on  the  W.  and  Antilibanus  on  the  E.,  to  the 
E.  Mt.  Hermon.  On  the  sea-coast:  C  arm  el.  Inland, 
in  Galilee:  Mt.  Tabor,  Mt.  Hermon,  and  Mt.  Gilboa. 
In  Samaria:  Mt.  Ebal  and  Mt.  Gerizim;  (on  the  latter 
the  Samaritans  erected  a  temple  to  rival  that  at  Jerusalem.) 
In  Peraea:  Mt.  Nebo  and  Mt.  Abarim. 

RIVERS. — Falling  into  the  Mediterranean:  1.  Orontes,  El 
Asij,  from  the  S. ;  2.  Leontes.  Jordanes,  Jordan,  from 
Hermon,  flowing  S.,  through,  1.  Semechonitis  Lacus, 


GEOGRAPHY.  58 

Waters  of  Meron;  2.  L.  Tiberias  vel  L.  Gennesaret, 
Lake  Chinnereth  or  Sea  of  Galilee^  falls  into  3.  Lacus 
Asphaltites  vel  Mare  Mortuum  vel  Salsum,  Dead 
Sea  or  Salt  Sea. 

DIVISIONS.  —  1.  Syria;  2.  Phoenicia;  3.  Palsestina* 

SYRIA. — Cities. — On  the  coast:  Seleucia  Fieri  a,  Capital 
of  the  district;  Lao  dice  a,  Ladikeyeli.  Inland,  on  the 
Orontes:  1.  Antiochia,  Antiocli,  the  Capital,  (where  the 
disciples  were  first  called  Christians);  2.  Epiphanea, 
(0.  T.  Hamath),  Hamali ;  Heliopolis  or  Balbec,  near 
the  source  of  the  Leontes ;  (with  a  magnificent  temple  of 
the  sun);  to  the  S.E.,  Damascus,  one  of  the  most  ancient 
cities  in  the  world;  E.  of  Antioch,  ChalybonorBeroea, 
Aleppo.  In  the  Desert:  Palmyra  or  Tadmor,  (the  city 
of  Zenobia,  with  whom  Longinus  the  philosopher  resided, 
destroyed  a.d.  273).  On  the  Euphrates:  1.  Samosata, 
Someisat,  (the  birth-place  of  Lucian) ;  2.  Zeugma;  3. 
Thapsacus,  (famed  for  its  ford,  by  which  Cyrus  in  his 
expedition,  Darius  in  his  retreat,  and  Alexander  previous 
to  the  battle  of  Arbela,  crossed  the  Euphrates). 

PIICENICIA.— (7i7i65.  — On  the  coast:  1.  Tripolis,  Taror 
hidus  or  Tripoli;  2.  Byblus,  Jeheil;  3.  Berytus,  Beirout; 
4.  Si  don,  Saida,  (famed  for  its  commerce  and  manufac- 
tures of  glass) ;  5.  Sarepta,  for  some  time  the  residence 
of  Elijah ;  6.  Tyrus,  Tijre  or  Sur,  (celebrated  for  its  mari- 
time wealth,  enterprise,  commerce,  and  colonizing  activity: 
taken,  B.C.  332,  after  a  siege  of  seven  months,  by  Alex- 
ander) ;  7.  Ptolemais,  Acre,  one  of  the  oldest  Phoenician 
cities. 

PALiESTINA  vel  JUD^A.  — In  Scripture  called  Canaan^ 
The  Land  of  Promise,  The  Land  of  Israel,  and  The  Holy 
Land. 

TRIBES.  — W.  of  the  Jordan:  1.  Asher;  2.  Naphthali; 
3.  Zebulon;  4.  Issachar;  5.  a  half  tribe  of  Manasseh; 


64  GEOGRAPHY.  ^ 

6.  Epliraim;  7.  Dan;  8.  Simeon;  9.  Benjamin;  10. 
Judah;  E.  of  the  Jordan:  a  half  tribe  of  Man  ass  eh; 
11.  Gad;  12.  Reuben.  After  the  death  of  Solomon  the 
land  was  divided  into  the  kingdoms  of  I  s  r  a  e  1  and  Judah 

DIVISIONS.  — 1.  N.,  Galilsea  (divided  into  Galiloea  Su- 
perior, Galilee  of  the  Gentiles,  and  Galilaea  Inferior. 
Lower  Galilee).     2.  Centre;    Samaiia.     3.  S. :    Jvidaea 

4.  Batanaea;  5.  Pergea,  both  beyond  the  Jordan. 

GALILEE. —  Cities. — In  the  N. :  Dan  ;  E.  of  this,  Caesarea 
Philippi  vel  Pane  as,  Banias.  On  the  borders  of  the 
Sea  of  Galilee:  1.  Capernaum  (our  Saviour^s  usual  place 
of  residence) ;  2.  Bethsaida  (the  city  of  Peter,  Andrew, 
and  Philip);  3.  Tiberias  (built  by  Ilerod  Antipas,  in 
honour  of  Augustus  Caesar).  "W.  of  the  Lake:  Dio  Cae- 
sarea vel  Sepphoris,  Sefurieh;  2.  Can  a  (where  our 
Lord  wrought    his   first  miracle   at  the   marriage-feast). 

5.  of  Cana:  1.  Nazareth  (the  residence  of  Joseph  and 
Mary);  2.  Nain,  where  the  widow^s  son  was  restored  to 
life. 

SAMARIA.  —  Cities.  —  Near  the  centre:  Samaria,  aft. 
Se baste,  (founded  by  Omri,  king  of  Israel;  it  was  the 
Capital  of  the  ten  tribes  until  taken  by  Shalmaneser,  king 
of  Assyria,  b.c.  721).  S.  of  this,  1.  Shechem  or  Sychar. 
afterwards  Neapolis,  Nahlous;  2.  Shiloh,  (where  Joshua 
erected  the  tabernacle);  S.E.,  Archelais,  founded  by 
Archelaus,  son  of  Herod.  On  the  coast:  C  33  s  are  a,  or 
Turris  Stratonis,  Kaisariyeli,  (the  residence  of  the  Roman 
Procurators). 

JUD^A. —  Cities.  —  On  the  coast:  J  op  pa,  Jaffa,  a  very 
ancient  maritime  city;  in  the  N.,  Bethel,  S.E.  of  this 
Jericho  or  Hierichus,  (taken  and  destroyed  by  Joshua) ; 
S.  of  Bethel,  Emmaus,  afterwards  Nico polls.  W.  of 
the  northern  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea:  Jerusalem  vel 
Hierosolyma  (originally  Jebus,  the  city  of  the  Jebu- 
sites),  the  Capital  of  the  Jewish  nation  from  the  time  of 


GEOGRAPHY.  55 

David,  B.  c.  1048 ;  destroyed  by  Titus,  a.  d.  70 ;  the  city 
was  situated  on  four  hills,  1.  Zion  (or  the  Upper  City),  on 
which  a  fortress  was  erected  by  David;  2.  Acra  (or  the 
Lower  City^  ;  3.  Moriah,  on  which  the  temple  was  built; 

4.  Bezetha;  at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Moriah  was  the  brook  Ke- 
dron,  which  flowed  into  the  Dead  Sea ;  N.E.  of  Jerusalem, 
Bethany  and  the  Mt.  of  Olives;  S.  from  Jerusalem, 
1.  Bethlehem,  the  birth-place  of  David  and  of  Our 
Blessed  Saviour;  2.  Hebron,  the  burial-place  of  Abra- 
ham, Isaac,  and  Jacob. 

Five  principal  cities  of  the  Philistines:  1.  Gath;  2. 
Ekron  or  Accaron;  3.  Azotus  or  Ashdod,  famed  for 
its  temple  to  Dagon ;  4.  Ascalon;  5.  Gaza. 

PER^^A  and  BATAN^A.  — In  Perjea:  1.  Heshbon;  2. 
Ramoth  Gilead;  3.  Bethabara,  on  the  Jordan.  In 
Batanaea   and   N.  of  Pergea:    DECAPOLIS,   comprising, 

1.  Canatha;  2.  Hippus;  3.  Gadara;  4.  Capitolias;  5.  Abila; 
6.  Scythopolis ;  7.  Pella ;  8.  Gerasa ;  9.  Dium ;  10.  Phila- 
delphia. 

THE  CITIES  OF  REFUGE.— W.  of  the  Jordan:  l.Kedesh; 

2.  Shechem ;   3.  Hebron.     E.   of  the   Jordan :   4.  Golan ; 

5.  Ramoth  Gilead  ;  6.  Bezer. 

SEVEN  HEATHEN  NATIONS.  — 1.  The  Ilittites;  2.  Gir- 
gashites;  3.  Amorites ;  4.  Canaanites ;  5.  Peiizzites;  6. 
Hivites ;  7.  Jebusites. 


ARABIA. 

Arabia. 


BOUNDARIES.  —  N.,  Syria  and  Chaldsea;  E.,  Sinus 
Persicus;  S.,  Erythraeum  Mare,  Arabian  Sea;  W, 
-<^gyptus,  Egijpt;  Sinus  Arabicus,  Red  Sea  or  Ara- 
hian  Gulf;  Dirae,  Straits  of  Babel  MandeL 


56  GEOGRAPHY. 

MOUNTAINS.  — In  the  N.,  between  the  two  branches  of  the 
Red  Sea:  Mt.  Sinai  and  Mt.  Iloreb;  Mt.  Hor,  near 

Petra. 

DIVISIONS.  —  N.W.,  ARABIA  PETR^Af  W.  and  S., 
ARABIA  FELIX ;  E.  and  in  the  interior,  ARABIA  DE- 
SERTA. 

TRIBES,  &c.  — N.,  Idumsea;  W.,  Nabathjei;  S.,  Sabsei, 
Cap.  Saba  or  Mar i aba,  0.  T.  Sheba.  In  Arabia  Petraea: 
Petra.  0.  T.  Tribes  bordering  on  Palestine:  Ammonites, 
Moabites,  Midianites,  Edomites,  Amalekites. 


COUNTRIES  BETWEEN  PONTUS  EUXINUS,  Black 
Sea,  AND  HYRCANUM  MARE,    Caspian  Sea. 

I.  SARMATIA  ASIATIC  A,  Clrcassia,  and  S.  E.  part  of 
Russia  in  Europe.  —  Boundaries.  —  N.E.,  R.  Rha,  Volga; 
S. E.,  Caspium  Mare,  Caspiaji  Sea;  S.,  Caucasus 
Mons;  W.,  Pontus  Euxinus,  Black  Sea,  and  R.  Ta- 
nais,  Don. 

II.  COLCHIS  or  ^A,  Guriel,  Imeritia,  and  Mingrelia. —' 
Boundaries.  —  N.,  Mons  Caucasus;  E.,  Iberia;  S. 
Armenia;  W.,  Pontus  Euxinus. 

Chief  River.  —  Phasis,  Faz  (which  has  given  its  name 
to  the  pheasant,  said  to  have  been  first  brought  to  Greece 
from  its  banks). 

Towns.  —  On  the  Phasis:  Cyta,  (where  Medea  was  said 
to  have  been  born).  On  the  N.  W.  coast:  Dioscuri  as, 
Iskuria,  (a  considerable  trading  city). 

III.  IBERIA,  Georgia.  —  Boundaries.  —  N.,  Caucasus;  E., 
Albania;  S.,  Armenia;  W.,  Colchis  [inhabitants^ 
Iberes  or  Iberi). 

Chief  River. — Cyrus,  Kour,  (tributaries,  Cambyses  and 
Alason). 

Tribe. — W.,  Moschi. 


GEOGRAPHY.  57 

IV.  ALBANIA,  Shirvan  and  part  of  Dagliistan.  —  Bound- 
aries.— N.,  Sarmatia  Asiatica;  E.,  Ilyrcanum  Mare; 
^    S.,  R.  Cyrus,  Kour ;  W.,  Iberia. 
Mountain,  —  Caucasus  Mons. 


ARMENIA  PROPRIA,  vel  MAJOR. 

Armenia  and  j^ar^i  of  Georgia. 

BOUNDARIES.— N.,  Colchis,  Iberia,  and  Albania;  E., 
a  point  at  the  junction  of  the  A  r  a  x  e  s  and  Cyrus;  S.,  M  e- 
dia,  Assyria,  and  Mesopotamia;  W.,  R.  Euphrates. 

MOUNTAINS.  —  Mons  ArTirat,  Imbarus  Mons,  Niphates 
Montes. 

RIVERS.  —  1.  A  raxes,  Aras  (rising  in  the  country  of  the 
Chalybes),  with  its  tributary,  Harpasus,  falls  into  the 
Caspian;  2.  Euphrates,  formed  by  two  branches  from 
the  N.  and  E.,  and  flow  S.,  into  Sinus  Persicus,  The 
Persian  Gulf;  3.  Tigris,  with  its  tributaries,  Nymphseus 
and  Nicephorius. 

LAKE.  —  Arsissa  Palus,  Lake  Van. 

TOWNS. — On  the  Araxes:  Artaxata.  On  the  Tigris: 
Amida.  On  the  Nicephorius:  Tigranocerta  (founded 
by  Tigranes,  son-in-law  of  Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus). 


MESOPOTAMIA. 

Algesii^a. 

MESOPOTAMIA,  so  named  from  its  position  between  the 
rivers  Euphrates  (VV.)  and  Tigris  (E.),  was  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  Masius  Mons,  Armenia,  and  Taurus 
Mons;  S.,  by  Babylonia. 


0«  GEOGRAPHY. 

RIVER.  —  Chaboras  or  Aborrhas,  Khahour  (a  branch  of 
the  Euphrates). 

DIVISIONS.  — N.W.,  Osroene;  N.E.,  Mygdonia. 

TOWNS.  — On  the  Euphrates:  1.  Nicephorium,  Ralckah 
(built  by  order  of  Alexander);  2.  Ounaxa  (battle,  B.C. 
401;  Cyrus  the  Younger  defeated  and  slain  by  Artaxerxes 

•  his  brother.  The  Greek  auxiliaries  of  Cyrus  commence 
their  return  to  Greece,  usually  called  the  retreat  of  the 
Ten  Thousand).  Between  the  two  rivers:  1.  Edessa, 
(0.  T.  Ur),  Urfah,  the  Capital  of  Osroene;  2.  Charrae, 
the  liar  an  of  the  0.  T.,  (death  of  Crassus,  and  defeat  by 
the  Parthians,  B.C.  53);  3.  Nisibis,  Cap.  of  Mygdonia, 
and  a  very  important  place  as  a  military  post. 


BABYLONIA  AND  CHALD^A. 

Irak  Ardbi.  ■ 

BOUNDARIES.  — N.,  Mesopotamia;  E.,  R.Tigris;  S., 
Persicus  Sinus;  W.,  Arabia. 

Cities. — Babylon,  ruins,  on  the  Euphrates,  founded  by 
Nimrod,.  about  b.  c.  2000,  and  taken  by  Cyrus,  b.  c.  538  ;  it 
was  built  in  the  form  of  a  quadrangle,  on  both  sides  of  the 
Euphrates,  and  was  distinguished  for  its  extent  and  mag- 
nificence. Its  chief  buildings  were:  1.  The  Tower  of 
Belus;  2.The01dRoyal  Palace;  3.The  New  Palace, 
with  the  hanging  gardens  (i.  e.  gardens  laid  out  in  the 
form  of  terraces  over  arches).  S.  of  Babylon:  Borsippa 
(the  chief  residence  of  the  Chaldoean  astrologers),  and 
Seleucia,  on  the  Tigris,  for  a  long  time  the  Capital  of 
W.  Asia. 


GEOGRAPHY.  59 

COUNTRIES   East  of  the  EUPHRATES   and 
TIGRIS. 

I.  ASSYRIA,  Koordistan.  —  Boundaries.  —  N.,  Armenia; 
E.,  Media;  S.,  Susiana;  W.,  R.  Tigris. 

Rivers.— Yloyfing  into  the  Tigris:  Zabatus  vel  Lye  us, 
Zah ;  Delas  or  Silla,  Diala. 

Divisions.  —  N.,  Aturia;  Centre,  A  di  a  bene;  S.,  Sifc- 
tacene. 

Cities.  —  On  the  Tigris:  1.  Ninus  or  Nineveh,  near 
Mosul,  (the  Capital  of  the  great  Assyrian  monarchy,  de- 
stroyed by  the  Medes  and  Babylonians,  b.  c.  606) ;  2. 
Ctesiphon  (the  usual  winter  residence  of  the  Parthian 
monarchs).  E.  of  the  Tigris:  Gaugamela,  (the  scene  of 
the  last  and  decisive  battle  between  Alexander  and  Darius, 
B.C.  331,  usually  called  the  battle  of  Arbela,  from  its 
proximity  to  that  town). 

II.  MEDIA,  NoriJi-icest  part  of  modern  Persia,  Irak.  — 
Boundaries.  —  N.,  Armenia,  R.  Araxes,  and  Caspium 
Mare;  E.,  Ilyrcania  and  Aria;  S.,  Persia  and  Su- 
siana; W.,  Assyria. 

Divisions. —  N.,  Atropatene;  Cliief  Town,  Gaza.  S., 
Media  Magna. 

Chief  Towns. — Ecbatana,  Humadan,  (near  Mt.  Orontes, 
the  residence  of  the  Median,  and  latterly  of  the  Persian 
kings.  The  city  was  built  without  walls,  on  the  slope 
of  a  hill,  on  the  summit  of  which  stood  the  royal  castle, 
surrounded  by  seven  walls,  with  battlements).  N.  E.  of 
Ecbatana :  KdamaL  TtvXao,  a  mountain-pass  ;  near  this  the 
Nicoean  plains,  famed  for  the  breed  of  white  horses. 

III.  SUSIANA  or  SUSIS,  Khuzistan.  — Boundaries. -^N,, 
Assyria;  E.,  Persia;  S.,  Sinus  Persieus;  W.,  R. 
Tigris. 

Rivers.  —  Choaspes,  Kerali;  Coprates,  Ahzal ;  and 
Pa  si-Tigris,  Karoon  (?),  fall  into  the  Tigris. 


f50  GEOGRAPHY. 

.    Tribes,  —  Cossse,  Elamitae. 

Capital,  —  Susa  (0.  T.  Shushan),  on  the  Choaspes  (tho 
winter  residence  of  the  Persian  monarchs). 

rV.  PERSIA  or  PERSIS,  Persia.  — Boundaries.  ^1^.,  Me^- 
dia;  E.,  Carmania;  S.,  Sinus  Persicus;  W.,  Su- 
siana. 

Cities.  —  Persepolis  (the  burial-place  of  the  Persian 
kings);  Pasargada  (founded  by  Cyrus  the  Great,  in 
memory  of  his  victory  over  Astyages,  the  last  king  of 
Media,  b.c.  559). 


COUNTRIES  South  of  the  R.  OXUS,  Jihon. 

I.  HYRCANIA,  Astrahad.  —  Boundaries.  —  N.  and  E.,  Par- 
thia;  S.,  Media;  W.,  Caspium  Mare. 

II.  PARTHIA,  Khorassan  (inhabited  by  a  very  warlike 
people). — Boundaries.  —  N.,  Scythia;  E.,  Aria;  S.  and 
S.W.,  Media;  W.,  Hyrcania. 

Cajntal.  —  Hecatompylus  (founded  by  Arsaces). 

III.  ARIA  or  ARIANUS,  East  part  of  Khorassan  and  N. 
of  Afghanistan.  —  Boundaries.  —  N.,  Parthia;  E.,  Bac- 
triana  and  Indo-Scythia;  S.,  Gedrosia;  W.,  Car- 
mania  and  Media. 

Dimsions. — N.,  Mar gi ana  (famed  for  its  wine) ;  Centre, 
Drangiana  (River:  Etyraandrus,  flowing  into  Aria 
P  a  1  u  s,  Lake  Zurrah) ;  S. ,  A  r  a  c  h  o  s  i  a. 

Tribe.  —  Paropamisadge  (at  the  foot  of  Paropamisus 
Mons  vel  Caucasus,  Hindoo-Koosh. 

Capital.  —  Aria  vel  Artacoana,  Herat. 

IV.  BACTRIANA  or  BACTRIA,  Bokhara.— Boundaries.— 
N.,  Oxus,  R.  Jihon;  E.  and  S.,  Paropamisus  Mons, 
Hindoo-Koosh;  W.,  Aria. 


GEOGRAPHY.  61 

CopiVaZ.  —  Backtra,  Balk  (the  winter-quartors  of  Alex- 
ander, B.C.  329). 

V.  C  ARMANI  A,  Kirman. — Boundaries. — E.,  Aria  and  Ge-. 
drosia;  S.,  Sinus  Persicus;  W.  and  N.W.,  Persia. 

Divisions.  —  Carmania  Propria  and  Carmania  De- 
serta. 

Cajntal.  —  Caramana,  Kirman. 

VI.  GEDROSIA,  Beloocliistan.  —  Boundaries.  —  N.,  Aria; 
E.,  Paropamisus  Mons,  Ilala  Mts. ;  S.,  Erythraeum 
Mare,  Arabian  Sea;  AY.,  Carmania. 

Mountains.  —  Parsici  Montes,  near  the  centre. 
Ti'ibes.  —  Ichthyophagi,   Oritse,  and   Arabitse,  on 
the  coast. 

Capital.  —  P  u  r  a. 


COUNTRIES  North  of  the  OXUS. 

I.  SOGDIANA,  part  of  Turkestan  and  Bokhara.  —  Bound- 
aries.  —  N.,  R.  Jaxartes,  Silion  or  Sirr ;  E.,  Imaus 
Mons;  S.,  R.  Oxus,  Jilion  or  Aniou;  W.,  Sea  of  Aral 
(unknown  to  the  ancients.) 

Cities, — Maracanda,  Samarkand  (the  Capital);  Cyro- 
polis,  on  the  Jaxartes  (founded  by  Cyrus). 

II.  SCYTHIA  [Independent  Tartary  and  Mongolia),  the  name 
^'iven  to  the  large  tract  of  country  N.  of  the  Caspian 
Sea,  R.  Jaxartes,  and  Emodi  Montes,  Himalaya  Mis.y 
and  E.  of  Sogdiana  and  Bactriana.  Scythia  was 
divided  by  Imaus  Mons,  Altai  Mts.,  into  Scythia  intra 
Imaum,  on  the  N.W.,  and  Scythia  extra  Imaum,  on 
the  S.E. 

Tribes,  &c.  —  Saca3  and  Massagetas;   E.  of  Scythia 
extra  Imaum,  Serica,  N.W.  part  of  CJiina,  inhabitants 
the  Seres,  famous  for  their  manufactures  of  silk  (the  coun- 
try was  regarded  as  the  native  region  of  the  silk-worm.) 
6 


62  GEOGRAPHY. 

INDIA. 

Hiiidostan,  Birmali,  Siam,  Cochin  Cliina,  and  Malaya, 

BOUNDARIES.— N.,  Emodi  Montes,  HimalaTja  Mts.,  and 
Scythia;  S.,  Gangeticus  Sinus,  Bay  of  Bengal,  and 
Indicus  Oceanus,  Indian  Ocean;  W.,  Erythrseum 
Mare,  Arabian  Sea,  and  Paropamisus  Mons,  Hala 
and  Soliman  Mts. 

RIVERS.  — I.  N.W.,  Indus,  Indus,  with  its  five  tributary 
streams:  1.  Ilydaspes,  Jelum ;  2.  Ace  sines,  Chcnaub ; 
3.  Ilydraotes,  Ravee ;  4.  Hyp  basis,  Gharra  or  Beeas ; 
5.  Zaradrus,  SutleJ.  II.  Ganges,  Ganges.  III.  Dyar- 
danes  or.CEdones,  Burrampooter. 

DIVISIONS.  — W.  of  tbe  Ganges,  India  intra  Gangem; 
E.  of  tbe  Ganges,  India  extra  Gangem. 

TOWNS,  &c.  — On  tbe  Indus:  Taxila,  Attock  (near  wbicb 
Alexander  crossed  tbe  river).  On  tbe  Ilydaspes:  Buce- 
phala,  Jelum  (built  by  Alexander,  in  memory  of  bis 
favourite  borse  Bucepbalus,  wbicb  died  and  was  buried 
here,  b.c.  327).  Malli,  a  tribe  on  each  side  of  tbe  Ace- 
sines,  Chenauh  ;  their  Capital  is  supposed  to  have  been  on 
the  site  of  the  fortress  of  Moultan.  On  the  Ganges: 
Palibothra,  Patna,  the  Capital  of  tbe  Prasii. 

ISLANDS,  &c. — Taprobane  vel  Sal  ice,  Ceijlon;  Jab  ad  i! 
Ins.,  Sumatra;  Aurea  Chersonesus  Malaya;  E.  of 
which,  Magnus  Sinus,  Gulf  of  Siam, 


AFRICA. 


BOUNDARIES.— N.,  Mare  Internum,  Mediterranean;  E., 
Arabia,  Sinus  Arabicus,  Red  Sea,  and  Erythraeum 
Mare,  Arabian  Sea;  W.,  Mare  Atlanticum,  Atlantic 
Ocean. 

BAYS.  — Syrtis  Major,  GulfofSidra;    Syrtis  Minor, 

Gidf  of  Cahes. 

STRAIT. — F return  Herculeumvel  Gaditanum,  Straits 
of  Gibraltar. 

RIVERS. —  Nil us,  Nile,  remarkable  for  its  periodical  inun- 
dations ;  some  few  miles  below  Memphis  the  river  divided 
into  three  branches,  but  now  into  two,  E.,  Ostium  Phatni- 
ticum,  at  Damietta,  W.,  Ostium  Bolbitinum,  at  Rosetta, 
which  flows  through  a  low  land,  called  from  its  shape 
(resembling  the  fourth  letter  of  the  Greek  language) 
"Delta,"  and  fell  into  the  Mediterranean.  The  seven 
ancient  mouths,  from  E.  to  W.,  were:  1.  Pelusiac;  2.  Saitic; 
3.  Mendesian ;  4.  Phatnitic,  or  Bucolic ;  5.  Sebennytic ;  6. 
Bolbitic ;  7.  Canopic.  Of  these  the  fourth  and  sixth  were 
artificial. 

LAKES. —  Near  the  western  mouth  of  the  Nile,  L.  Ma- 
reotis;  S.  of  this,  L.  Moeris.  E.  of  the  Nile,  L.  Sir- 
bonis. 

(68) 


64  GEOGRAPHY. 

iEGYPTUS. 

Egypt 

BOUNDARIES.  — N.,  Mediterranean;  E.,  Arabia  and 
Sinus  Arabicus,  Red  Sea;  S.,  -Ethiopia;  W.,  Libya. 

DIVISIONS.  —  1.  N.,  ^gyptus  Inferior  or  Delta;  2. 
Middle:  Ileptanomis ;  3.  S.,  ^gyptus  Superior  vel 
Thebais. 

JEGYPTUS  INFERIOR  vel  DELTA.— CiV/e^.— Between  L. 

Mareotis  and  the  Sea,  Alexandria,  with  two  harbours 
(the  Capital  of  Egypt  under  the  Ptolemies,  founded  by 
Alexander,  ^.c.  332,  and  famous  for  its  learning  and  com- 
merce ;  the  library  is  said  to  have  contained  400,000 
volumes).  Opposite  to  Alexandria:  the  island  Pharos, 
with  a  famous  light-house,  built  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 
B.C.  283.  E.  of  Alexandria:  Can  opus,  near  Ahoukir  (its 
inhabitants  were  proverbial  for  their  luxury).  In  the 
Delta:  1.  Naucratis,  founded  by  the  Milesians,  the  only 
place  in  Egypt  where  Greeks  were  permitted  to  settle  and 
trade) ;  2.  Sais  (the  ancient  Capital  of  Lower  Egypt  —  it 
contained  the  palace  and  burial-place  of  the  Pharaohs) ; 
3.  Busiris,  with  the  temple  of  Isis ;  4.  Buto  (with  an 
oracle  of  the  Egyptian  goddess  Buto).  E.  of  the  Delta: 
1.  Pel u slum  (surrounded  by  swamps,  and  called,  from 
its  situation,  the  Key  of  Egypt);  E.  of  this,  Casius  Mons, 
with  a  temple  of  Jupiter ;  here  also  was  the  grave  of  Pom- 
pey ;  2.  He  Hop  51  is,  or  On,  O.T.  (with  a  celebrated  temple, 
the  chief  seat  of  the  worship  of  the  Sun) ;  3.  Bubastis 
(where  the  great  annual  festival  to  the  goddess  Bubastis, 
or  the  Moon,  was  held). 

HEPTANOMIS.— a7/e5.  — On  the  W.  side  of  the  Nile:  1. 
Memphis  or  Moph,  the  Capital  (near  which  were  the 
celebrated  Pyramids) :  of  its  splendid  buildings  the  chief 
were,  the  Palace  of  the  Pharaohs  and  the  temples  of 

,  Apis   and   Serapis;    2.  Crocodilopolis   or  Arsin5e 


GEOGRAPHY.  65 

(the  chief  seat  of  the  worship  of  the  Crocodile) :  near  this, 
the  famous  Labyrinthus,  containing  3000  apartments, 
in  which  the  kings  and  sacred  crocodiles  were  buried; 
3.  Oxyrhyncus,  BeJmeseh^  so  called  from  the  fish  of  that 
name  there  worshipped. 

i^GYPTUS  SUPERIOR  vel  THEB AIS.  —  (7/^/e5.  —  On  the 
W.  side  of  the  Nile:  1.  Ptolemais,  MensMeJi  (an  import- 
ant city  under  the  Ptolemies) ;  2.  Abydos,  with  a  Mem- 
nonium,  (i.  e.  a  building  erected  by,  or  in  honour  of 
Memnon),  and  a  temple  of  Osiris;  3.  Thebse  vel  Dios- 
polis,  on  both  sides  of  the  Nile,  Capital  of  Thcbfiis,  and 
the  most  ancient  residence  of  the  Egyptian  kings :  this 
city,  called  the  hundred-gated  [Bxato^Ttv'koi),  possessed 
many  maguificent  buildings,  the  ruins  of  which  now 
enclose  a  space  two  miles  in  length;  4.  Elephantine, 
and  5.  Philse,  on  two  small  islands,  with  many  architec- 
tural remains.  On  the  E.  side  of  the  Nile:  1.  Syene, 
Assouan,  the  S.  frontier  city  of  Egypt;  2.  Coptos,  Kofty 
(the  central  point  of  commerce  between  India  and  Arabia, 
by  way  of  Berenice,  on  the  Arabian  Gulf). 

At  the  N.  of  the  Red  Sea:  Cleopatris  vel  Arsinoe, 
Suez. 

South  of  Egypt:  Ethiopia,  Nubia,  Senaar,  Kordofan, 
and  Abyssinia. 

Rivers.  —  Astapus  and  Astaboras,  flowing  into  the 
Nile. 

City.  —  Me  roe  (the  Capital  of  the  powerful  kingdom  of 
Heroe),  with  a  famous  oracle  of  Ammon. 


NORTHEKN  COASTS  OF  AFRICA. 

DIVISIONS. — I.  Libya,  5arc<x,  with  the  provinces;  1.  Mar- 

marica;   2.  Cyrenaica.     II.  Tripolitana  vel  Regie 

Syrtica,  Tripoli.    III.  Africa  Propria,  Tunis,  with  Zeu- 

gitana  and  Byzacium  vel  Emporia.     IV.  NumidiA, 

6^ 


66  GEOGRAPHY. 

Algiers.  Y.  Mauritania,  Morocco  and  Fez,  divided  into 
Mauritania  Coesariensis,  E.,  and  Mauritania  Tin- 
gitana,  W. 

LIBYA,  Barca.  —  Towns.  —  In  Marmarica.  —  On  the  coast : 
Par{)etonium,  El-Bareton ;  S.  of  this,  Oasis  of  Amnion, 
famous  for  its  temple,  visited  by  Alexander ;  "VV.  of  Parosto- 
nium,  Catabathnios,  generally  considered  the  boundary 
between  Egypt  and  Cyrenaica.  In  Cyrenaica:  Gyrene, 
the  chief  city  (founded  by  Battus,  b.c.  631),  the  birth-place 
of  Aristippus,  the  philosopher,  and  Callimachus,  the  poet ; 
S.W.  of  Cyrene,  Barce,  Barca,  chief  town  of  the  Barcitse. 
On  the  coast:  1.  Ptolemais;  2.  Berenice,  the  fabled 
site  of  the  Gardens  of  the  Ilesperides. 

TRIPOLITANI,  Tripoli.— Towns.— On  the  coast:  ,1.  Leptis 
Magna  vel  Neapolis;  2.  Oea,  Ti-ipoli ;  3.  Sabrata 
(these  three  cities  formed  the  African  Tripolis). 

Tribe.  —  On  the  coast:  Lotophagi  or  Eaters  of  the 
Lotus,  the  taste  of  which  was  so  delicious,  that  those  who 
eat  of  the  fruit  lost  all  desire  to  return  to  their  native 
countr}^ 

AFRICA  PROPRIA,  Tunis,  divided  into  Byzacium  and 
Zeugitana. —  Toions.  —  In  Byzacium.  —  On  the  coast:  1. 
Tacape,  Cabes ;  2.  T  haps  us,  Demas  (battle,  b.c.  46. 
Caesar  defeated  the  Pompeian  army);  3.  Leptis  Minor, 
Lanita;  4.  Hadrumetum  (the  Capital  of  Byzacium  under 
the  Romans).  Inland:  Tritonis  Palus,  El  Sihkali  (in 
which  Minerva  is  said  to  have  been  born,  and  hence  called 
*' Tritonia").  In  Zeugitana.  —  On  the  coast:  1.  Tunes, 
Tunis ;  2.  Carthago,  the  Capital  of  Africa,  situated  at 
the  head  of  a  bay,  formed  by  two  promontories,  Her- 
mseum  Prom.,  C.  Bon,  and  Apollinis  Prom.,  C.  Fa- 
rina, The  Tyrian  colony  of  Carthage  was  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  Dido,  about  B.C.  853  —  its  citadel  was 
termed  Byrsa  (Bvp^ja,  "a  hide"),  in  reference  to  the  manner 
in  which  the  portion  of  land  for  building  the  first  city  was 


GEOGRAPHY.  67 

obtained  by  Dido  (destroyed,  B.C.  146,  by  Scipio  Africanus 
the  Younger) ;  2.  Utica,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Bagradas, 
the  second  city  in  Africa,  and  even  more  ancient  than 
Carthage  (the  birth-place  of  Cato,  whence  he  received  the 
surname  of  Uticensis).  Inland:  Zama  (battle,  B.C.  202, 
Hannibal  defeated  by  Scipio,  and  the  Second  Punic  war 
ended). 

NUMIDIA,  E.  part  of  Algiers.  —  Toivn.  —  Cirta,  the  Capital, 
the  city  of  Syphax  and  Masinissa. 
IhHbe.  —  Massyli. 

MAURITANIA,  Morocco,  Fez,  and  part  of  Algiers.  —  Towns. 
—  On  the  coast:  1.  Cartenna,  Tennez;  2.  Siga;  3.  Tin- 
gis,  Tangier ;  4.  Sal  a,  Bailee.  S.  of  Mauritania:  Atlas 
Mons,  Mt.  Atlas.  Tribes.  —  S.  of  Atlas  Mons,  Numidia 
and  Africa  Propria,  Gtetuli,  E.  of  vrhich  Garamantes,. 
dwelling  in  the  region  Phazania,  Fezzan,  Cap.  Garama, 
Mourzouk. 

ISLANDS.  —  In  the  Atlantic  :  Insulas  Pur  pur  arias,  pro- 
bably the  Madeira,  S.  of  which  Insulge  Fortunata), 
Canary  islands,  in  which  the  ancients  supposed  the  Elysian 
fields  to  be  situated;  Ilesperidum  Insulce,  Cape  ferdxi 
Islands f  )r  tJie  Bissagos  group. 


MYTHOLOGY. 


THE    TWELVE    OLYMPIAN    OR    NATIONAL 
DEITIES  OF  THE  GREEKS  AND  ROMANS. 

JUPITER  (Zfvs-),  son  of  Saturn  and  Ops,  king  of  gods  and 
men,  and  the  most  powerful  of  all  the  deities.  He  was 
educated  in  a  cave  on  Mount  Ida.  When  a  year  old  he 
made  war  against  the  Titans,  in  the  cause  of  his  father 
Saturn,  and  liberated  him.  He  is  usually  represented  as 
sitting  on  an  ivory  or  golden  throne,  holding  in  his  hand 
thunderbolts.     He  bore  a  shield  or  goat-skin  called  ^gis. 

NEPTUNE  (riooftSwv),  son  of  Saturn  and  Ops,  and*  chief 
deity  of  the  sea ;  he  was  on  this  account  entitled  to  more 
power  than  any  other  god  except  Jupiter.  He  is  repre- 
sented as  carrying  the  trident,  or  three-pronged  spear, 
attended  by  dolphins.     Amphitrite  was  his  queen. 

VULCAN  {"H^atato^),  son  of  Juno ;  the  god  of  fire,  and 
patron  of  all  workers  in  iron  and  metals:  his  palace,  which 
was  in  Olympus,  contained  his  workshop,  in  which  ho 
made  many  ingenious  and  marvellous  works,  both  for  goda 
and  men.  His  abode  is  said  by  some  to  have  been  in  p 
volcanic  island.     The  Cyclops  were  his  workmen. 

MARS  ("Apj^^),  the  god  of  war;  son  of  Jupiter  and  Juno. 
He  presided  over  gladiators,  and  was  the  patron  of  manly 
and  warlike  exercises.  He  is  generally  represented  as 
riding  in  a  chariot,  drawn  by  furious  horses,  called  Flight 
and  Terror.  In  the  Trojan  war  he  is  said  to  have  taken 
the  part  of  the  Trojans.  In  Rome  he  received  the  most 
unbounded  honours> 

(68) 


MYTHOLOGY.  69 

MERCURIUS  (^Ep^tjJ^),  son  of  Jupiter  and  Maia ;  messenger 
of  the  gods,  and  deity  of  eloquence,  commerce,  and  the  a  ts. 
He  conducted  the  souls  of  the  dead  into  the  lower  Avorld, 
and  is  usually  represented  with  a  winged  hat  and  sandals, 
bearing  the  caduceus  in  his  hand.  Hermes  was  born  on 
Mount  Cyllene,  in  Arcadia. 

APOLLO,  son  of  Jupiter  and  Latona ;  god  of  music,  medi- 
cine, augury,  painting,  poetry,  and  all  the  line  arts.  He 
was  born,  with  his  sister  Diana,  near  Mount  Cynthus,  in 
Delos,  an  island  in  the  ^gean  Sea.  When  he  grew  up  he 
slew  the  serpent  Python,  which  infested  the  country  near 
Delphi,  and  established  the  famous  oracle.  He  received 
the  surname  of  Phoebus  from  his  connexion  with  the  Sun 
(<I»ot'3o^,  the  bright). 

JUNO  ("Hpa  or  "Hpjy),  the  daughter  of  Saturn  and  Ops,  sister 
and  wife  of  Jupiter,  and  queen  of  all  the  gods.  She  was 
born  at  Argos  (some  say  Samos),  and  is  noted  for  her 
jealousy  and  severity  to  the  illegitimate  children  of 
Jupiter. 

MINERVA  or  ATHENA  ['Ae^vri  or  'A^r^va,  lid-kXa^),  daughter 
of  Jupiter,  said  to  have  sprung  from  his  forehead  com- 
pletely armed.  She  was  goddess  of  wisdom,  war,  and  the 
liberal  arts,  the  guardian  and  aider  of  heroes,  and  pre- 
siding goddess  of  Athens.  She  is  always  represented  with 
a  helmet,  breast-plate  (or  ^gis),  and  shield ;  on  the  latter 
was  the  Gorgon's  head.  Her  favourite  bird  was  the  owl, 
which  was  sacred  to  her. 

VESTA  ('EoTT'fca),  the  goddess  of  the  hearth,  and  also  of  fire. 
Her  worship  was  introduced  into  Italy  by  ^neas.  The 
fire  on  the  altar  in  her  temple  was  never  allowed  to  gc 
out;  but,  when  such  was  the  case,  it  was  kindled  again  by 
the  rays  of  the  sun.  The  priestesses  dedicated  to  her  ser- 
vice were  called  Vestals. 

CERES  (A?7a^r>2p),  daughter  of  Saturn  and  Rhea  (or  Ops) ; 
goddess  of  corn  and  plenty,  the  same  as  Isis  of  the  Egyp- 
tians. She  was  mother  of  Proserpine,  and  is  represented 
holding  a  sceptre  or  torch,  and  a  garland  of  ears  of  corn 
round  her  head. 


70  MYTHOLOGY. 

VENUS  ('A4)po5tT'J7),  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Dione  and  wife 
of  Vulcan,  the  goddess  of  love  and  beauty,  queen  of  laughter, 
and  mistress  of  the  graces  and  pleasures.  Venus  is  sup- 
posed to  have  sprung  from  the  foam  of  the  sea  near  the 
island  of  Cyprus  or  Cythcra.  In  the  contest  for  the  golden 
apple  of  beauty,  Paris  awarded  it  to  Venus,  in  preference 
to  Pallas  and  Juno.  Her  f;ivourite  birds  were  swans  and 
doves,  her  sacred  flowers  the  rose  and  myrtle. 

DIANA  ("AptfjUtj),  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Latona,  and 
sister  of  Apollo ;  the  goddess  of  woods  and  hunting.  On 
earth  she  was  called  Diana,  in  heaven  Luna,  in  the  lower 
world  Proserpina  or  Hecate. 

Note.  —  The  deities  of  the  Romans  were  adapted  to  those  of  the 
Greeks,  with  which  they  do  not  entirely  correspond. 


MINOR  DEITIES. 

jEOLUS,  a  king  of  the  iEolian  Islands.  lie  is  fabled  to  be 
the  god  of  the  winds,  from  his  foretelling  the  changes  of 
the  winds  and  weather. 

iESCULAPIUS  ('Acfx^rttoj),  the  god  of  medicine,  instructed 
in  this  science  by  Chiron.  He  was  worshipped  throughout 
Greece ;  and  his  temples,  which  were  built  in  healthy 
places,  on  hills,  or  near  wells,  were  not  only  places  of  wor- 
ship, but  frequented  by  sick  persons. 

AMMON,  a  surname  of  Jupiter,  worshipped  in  Libya,  and 
afterwards  in  Egypt. 

AMPHITRITE,  a  NEREID  or  OCEANID,  wife  of  Neptune, 
and  goddess  of  the  sea. 

APIS,  the  bull  of  Memphis,  worshipped  by  the  Egyptians. 
He  was  allowed  to  live  but  about  twenty-five  years,  and 
was  then  slain  and  secretly  buried  ;  but  if  ho  died  a  natural 
death,  he  was  buried  publicly,  with  great  solemnity. 

ASTRiEA,  daughter  of  Zeus  and  Themis;  goddess  of  justice 
She  lived  on  earth  during  the  golden  ago  ;  but  the  wicked- 
ness of  mankind  drove  her  to  heaven  during  the  brazen 


MtTTlOLOGY.  71 

and  iron  ages.  She  was  placed  among  the  constellations, 
under  the  name  of  Virgo,  and  is  represented  holding  a  paii 
of  scales  in  one  hand,  and  a  sword  in  the  other. 

AURORA  [Eos,  "Ewj),  the  goddess  of  the  morning,  daughter 
of  Hyperion,  and  wife  of  Tithonus  son  of  Laomedon.  She 
is  represented  as  setting  out  before  Helios  her  brother, 
drawn  in  a  chariot  by  four  white  steeds,  and  dispelling 
darkness  and  sleep. 

BACCHUS  (Dionysus,  Atwrtfoj),  the  god  of  wine,  son  of 
Jupiter  and  Semele  the  daughter  of  Cadpius  of  Thebes. 
He  is  usually  represented  as  an  effeminate  youth,  crowned 
with  ivy  and  vine  leaves. 

BELLONA,  the  Roman  goddess  of  war,  and  companion  of 
Mars.  She  is  usually  described  as  his  wife,  and  repre- 
sented armed  with  a  scourge,  to  animate  the  combatants. 

CUPIDO  or  AMOR  ('Epcoj),  the  god  of  love ;  the  son  of  Venus 
and  Zeus  (some  relate  of  Mars  and  Mercury).  He  is 
usually  represented  as  carr^'ing  a  bow  and  arrows,  which 
he  darts  into  the  bosoms  of  gods  and  men. 

FAUNI,  rural  deities,  represented  as  half  men  and  half  goats. 

FLORA,  the  goddess  of  flowers  among  the  Romans. 

FORTUNA  [Tvzr^),  daughter  of  Oceanus  ;  the  goddess  of  for- 
tune. From  her  were  derived  riches  and  poverty,  pleasures 
and  misfortunes.  The  Romans  paid  great  attention  to  this 
goddess,  and  had  eight  temples  dedicated  to  her  at  Rome. 

FURI^  or  DIRiE,  called  by  the  Greeks  Erinyes  ('Epti/vfj)  or 
Eumenides  {Ev(X£vl8£s),  three  goddesses  sprung  from  Ge  and 
the  blood  of  Uranus,  namely,  Tisiplwne,  Alecto,  and  Megcera. 
They  haunted  the  impious  with  remorse  for  their  crimes. 

GE  or  G^A  (r^  or  Tata),  also  called  by  the  Romans  TELLUS 
and  TERRA,  was  the  personification  of  the  earth,  and  as 
such  was  worshipped  by  the  ancients  as  a  deity. 

GENIUS,  the  guardian  or  protecting  spirit  of  each  man's 
life.  Such  spirits  were  called  by  the  Greeks  hai^xovie,  by 
the  Romans  Genii,  and  were  regarded  as  the  ministers  of 
Zeus,  and  guardians  of  men  and  justice.  Hesiod  numbers 
the  Df«mones  at  30,000. 


72  3VI  Y  T  H  O  L  O  G  Y . 

GRATLE,  the  throe  goddesses  presiding  over  all  elegant  arts 
and  social  enjoyments.  They  are  generally  represented 
dancing.  Their  names  were  Ajlaia  (splendour),  Euphro- 
syae  (joy),  Thalia  (pleasure). 

HADES  or  PLUTO  ('At-Sjyj),  god  of  the  {unseen  or)  nether 
world  Ho  is  also  known  as  OrcuSy  Tttrtanis,  and  Dis. 
The  word  Hades  is  also  frequently  used  to  designate  the 
infernal  regions. 

HEBE  vel  JUVENTAS,  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Juno  ;  the 
goddess  of  youth.  She  was  for  some  time  cup-bearer  to 
the  gods,  to  which  office  Ganymede  succeeded ;  she  was 
also  employed  by  Juno  in  preparing  her  chariot,  &c.  She 
was  supposed  to  have  the  power  of  making  aged  persons 
young  again. 

HECATE,  a  Titan  goddess,  whose  power  extended  over 
heaven,  earth,  and  sea.  Also  a  name  for  Diana  or  Pro- 
serpina. 

HELIOS,  called  SOL  by  the  Romans,  god  of  the  sun ;  brother 
of  Aurora. 

HOR^,  daughters  of  Zeus  and  Themis.  Originally  the  god- 
desses of  the  seasons,  but  in  later  times  of  order  and  justice. 
Tiiey  were  three  in  number,  Eummia  (good  order),  DlkS 
(justice),  Irene  (peace). 

HYGIExV  or  HYGEA,  the  goddess  of  health;  daughter  of 
iEsculapius.  Slie  is  represented  as  a  virgin,  draped  in  a 
long  robe,  and  feeding  a  serpent  from  a  cup. 

HYMEN  vel  HYMEN^EUS,  the  god  of  marriage ;  described 
by  some  as  the  son  of  Bacchus  and  Venus,  by  others  as  the 
son  of  Apollo  and  one  of  the  Muses. 

IRIS,  the  goddess  of  the  rainbow,  and  the  messenger  of  the 
deities,  particularly  of  Juno. 

ISIS,  a  celebrated  deity  of  the  Egyptians,  described  as  tho 
wife  of  Osiris;  goddess  of  the  earth,  and  deity  of  the  moon; 
inventor  of  the  cultivation  of  wheat  and  barley. 

JANUS,  a  Roman  deity ;  god  of  the  temple  of  war.  He  is 
represented  with  two  faces,  sometimes  with  four  heads. 
Numa  dedicated  a  temple  to  Janus,  open  in  times  of  war, 
and  closed  in  times  of  peace. 


MYTHOLOGY.  73 

LARES,  inferior  gods  at  Rome,  who  presided  over  houses  and 
families,  and  were  divided  into  Lares  puhlici  and  Lares  do- 
mestici ;  all  the  latter  were  headed  by  the  Lar  familiai'isy 
regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  family.  Their  images  stood 
on  the  hearth,  and  offerings  were  made  to  them  daily. 

LUNA  or  SELENE,  daughter  of  Hyperion ;  the  goddess  of 
the  moon,  identified  afterwards  with  Diana. 

MANES,  the  general  name  for  the  souls  of  the  departed. 
They  were  regarded  as  gods,  and  received  divine  honours. 

MOMUS,  the  god  of  pleasantry,  wit,  and  satire ;  driven  from 
heaven  by  the  gods  for  turning  all  their  actions  into  ridicule. 

MORPHEUS,  son  of  the  deity  Somnus,  and  god  of  dreams. 

MUS^,  goddesses  Avho  presided  over  poetry,  &c.  They  were 
the  daughters  of  Jupiter  and  Mnemosyne  (Memory),  and 
nine  in  number :  1.  Clio,  the  muse  of  History ;  2.  Euterpe^ 
of  Lyric  Poetry;  3.  Thdlla,  of  Comedy;  4.  Melpomene,  of 
Tragedy ;  5.  Terpsichore,  of  Choral  Dance ;  6.  Erato,  of 
Amatory  Poetry;  7.  PolyJiymnia,  of  Rhetoric  and  Elo- 
quence; 8.  Urania,  of  Astronomy;  9.  Calliope,  Epic  Poetry. 
At  the  Olympian  banquets  they  sang  to  Apollo's  lyre. 
Their  favourite  haunts  were  the  hills  Pindus,  Helicon,  and 
Parnassus. 

NEMESIS,  daughter  of  Nox,  goddess  of  vengeance,  and 
always  prepared  to  punish  the  wicked  and  reward  the  good. 

NEREUS,  a  deity  of  the  sea,  and  father  of  the  fifty  Nereides. 
He  is  represented  as  an  old  man,  and  described  as  the  wise 
old  man  of  the  sea,  at  the  bottom  of  which  he  dwelt. 

NYMPHS,  a  numerous  class  of  female  deities,  generally 
divided  into  two  classes,  viz.  land  and  water  nympJis.  The 
chief  land  nymphs  were :  1st,  Oreades,  of  the  mountains 
and  grottoes;  2d,  NapseoB,  of  the  forests,  glens,  and  groves; 
3d,  Dryades  and  Ilamadryades,  of  the  woods  and  trees. 
The  chief  water  nymphs  wore:  1st,  Oceanides,  or  ocean 
nymphs,  three  thousand  in  number;  2d,  Nereides,  or  sea 
nymphs,  fifty  in  number  (among  them  wo  find  Amphitrlte, 
Thetis,  and  Galatea)  ;  3d,  Naiades,  a  general  name  for 
those  nymphs  presiding  over  either  rivers,  lakes,  brooks, 
or  springs ;  4th,  Potameides,  or  river  nymphs. 


74  MYTHOLOGY. 

OCEAN  US,  the  god  of  water ;  son  of  Unmus  and  Ge  ;  repre- 
sented as  an  old  man,  sitting  on  the  waves  of  the  sea. 

OSIRIS,  a  great  Egyptian  divinit}^  husband  of  Isis,  and  god 
of  the  Nile.  He  taught  the  use  of  the  plough,  and  is  some* 
times  represented  as  the  deity  of  the  sun. 

PALES,  the  divinity  of  sheep-folds  and  pastures  among  the 
Romans. 

PAN,  the  god  of  shepherds ;  son  of  Hermes.  He  was  usually 
represented  as  a  monster  with  two  small  horns  on  his  head, 
ruddy  complexion,  flat  nose,  and  with  the  legs,  tail,  and 
feet  of  a  goat.  He  resided  chiefly  in  Arcadia,  and  is  said 
to  have  invented  the  pipe  with  seven  reeds,  called  Syrinx, 
from  a  nymph  of  that  name  whom  he  loved. 

PAX,  the  Roman  goddess  of  peace ;  daughter  of  Zeus  and 
Themis. 

PENATES,  the  household  gods  of  the  Romans,  called  Penates 
from  being  placed  in  the  innermost  part  {in  penitissima 
parte)  of  the  house;  they  were  generally  made  of  wax, 
ivory,  silver,  or  clay. 

PHCEBE,  a  name  given  to  Diana  as  goddess  of  the  moon 
(Luna) ;  Apollo,  her  brother,  being  surnamed  Phoebus, 
god  of  the  sun. 

PHCEBUS,  expressive  of  brightness,  a  surname  given  to 
Apollo  as  god  of  the  sun. 

PLUTO,  the  son  of  Saturn  and  Rhea ;  god  of  the  infernal 
regions.  He  is  described  as  gloomy  and  inexorable ;  on 
which  account,  as  none  of  the  goddesses  would  marry  him, 
he  bore  off  Proserpine  by  force.  He  is  also  known  as 
Orcus,  Hades,  Dis,  &c. 

PLUTUS,  son  of  Ceres  and  lasion ;  the  god  of  wealth.  Jupiter 
is  said  to  have  deprived  him  of  sight,  that  he  might  not 
bestow  his  gifts  on  the  righteous  alone. 

POMONA,  the  goddess  of  fruits  among  the  Romans. 

PRIAPUS,  a  deity  who  presided  over  gardens,  and  was  wor- 
shipped as  a  protector  of  flocks,  goats,  bees,  and  fishing. 

PROSERPINA  vel  PERSEPHONE,  daughter  of  Jupiter  and 
Ceres,  and  wufe  of  Pluto  as  queen  of  the  lower  world.  She 
presided  oyer  the  death  of  mankind. 


MYTHOLOGY.  iO 

PROTEUS,  a  sea  deity  (the  prophetic  old  man  of  the  sea), 
remarkable  for  his  custom  of  assuming  different  forms 
when  consulted,  lie  is  described  as  a  subject  of  Neptune, 
whose  flocks  (the  seals)  he  tended. 

PARCaE  vel  MOIR/E,  the  Fates,  powerful  goddesses,  who 
presided  over  the  life  and  death  of  mankind.  They  were 
three  in  number,  viz. :  Clotho,  or  the  spinning  fate,  who 
presided  at  the  birth ;  Lachesis,  who  spun  out  all  the  events 
of  each  man's  life,  and  assigned  his  lot  or  fate ;  AtropoSy 
the  inflexible  fate  that  cannot  be  avoided,  who  cut  the 
thread  of  life. 

SATURNUS  (Kpovos),  a  son  of  Coelus  and  Uranus,  and  the 
father  of  Jupiter.  As  the  god  of  time  he  is  represented  as 
an  old  man,  holding  a  scythe  in  his  right  hand. 

SILENUS,  a  rural  deity ;  an  attendant  on  Bacchus.  Usually 
represented  in  a  state  of  intoxication,  and  never  seen  with- 
out his  wine-bag. 

SILYANUS,  a  Roman  deity,  who  presided  over  the  woods 
and  forests. 

THEMIS,  daughter  of  Uranus  and  Ge ;  the  mother  of  Astrsea, 
Irene,  the  Parcae,  &c.,  &c.  She  is  the  personification  of 
Law  and  Equity. 

THETIS,  one  of  the  sea  deities  or  Nereides  (daughters  of 
Nereus),  and  the  mother  of  Achilles. 

URANUS,  CCELUS,  or  HEAVEN,  a  Titan;  the  most  ancient 
of  all  the  gods :  father  of  Saturn,  Oceanus,  &c. 

VERTUMNUS,  the  Roman  deity  who  presided  over  plants 
and  flowers. 


HEROES,  MYTHICAL  PERSONS,  &c. 

ACHERON,  a  river  of  the  lower  world,  over  which  the  dead 
were  first  conveyed :  the  word  is  sometimes  used  to  desig- 
nate the  whole  of  the  infernal  regions. 

ADMETUS,  son  of  Pheres  and  Periclymene,  king  of  Pherse, 
in  Thessaly,  husband  of  Alcestis,  and  one  of  the  Argonauts. 


76  MYTHOLOGY. 

ADONIS,  a  beautiful  youth,  the  favourite  of  Venus ;  at  his 
death  she  transformed  him  into  the  flower  called  Ane- 
mone. 

.^ACUS,  son  of  Zeus  and  /Egina :  he  was  so  famed  throuoh- 
out  Greece  for  his  justice  and  piety,  that  he  was  called 
upon  to  settle  the  disputes  not  only  of  men,  but  sometimes 
of  the  gods  ;  on  his  death  he  became  one  of  the  thr'?« 
judges  in  Hades. 

JRGMOl^  (vide  Briareus). 

ALCESTIS,  daughter  of  Pelias,  and  wife  of  Admetus,  who, 
having  on  the  day  of  his  marriage  neglected  to  sacrifice 
to  Artemis,  Apollo  reconciled  the  ofiended  goddess,  and 
induced  the  Fates  to  deliver  Admetus  from  death,  if  his 
father,  mother,  or  wife,  would  die  for  him ;  Alcestis  died 
in  his  stead,  but  was  brought  back  from  the  lower  world 
by  Hercules. 

AMAZONES,  a  nation  of  female  warriors,  said  to  have  come 
from  the  Caucasus,  and  settled  near  the  river  Thermodon, 
in  Pontus  ;  Hippolyte  was  their  queen. 

ARIADNE,  daughter  of  Minos  and  Greta ;  she  fell  in  love 
with  Theseus,  who  married  her,  but  afterwards  forsook  her. 

ATLAS,  one  of  the  Titans,  who  is  generally  represented  as 
supporting  the  world  on  his  shoulders  ;  which  task  was 
allotted  him  in  consequence  of  his  having,  with  the  other 
Titans,  made  war  upon  Zeus  (vide  Titanes). 

BELLEROPHON,  son  of  Glaucus  a  Corinthian  king.  To  be 
purified  from  the  murder  of  his  brother  Bellerus,  he  fled  to 
Prcetus,  king  of  Argos,  by  whom  he  was  sent  to  lobates, 
king  of  Lycia,  his  father-in-law,  who  ordered  him  to  slay 
the  monster  Chimasra,  thinking  he  would  perish  in  the 
contest ;  but  Bellerophon,  having  obtained  the  aid  of  Pe- 
gasus, the  winged  horse,  conquered  the  Chiraoera:  he  waf.i 
also  sent  against  the  Amazons,  and  encountered  the  bravest 
of  the  Lycians,  always  returning  victorious.  lobutes,  see- 
ing it  was  hopeless  to  kill  the  hero,  made  him  his  successor, 
and  gave  him  his  daughter  in  marriage.  Some  relate  that 
Bellerophon  attempted  to  fly  to  heaven  on  Pegasus,  but 
Zeus  sent  a  gad-fly  to  sting  the  horse,  which  tlii-ew  off  the 


IVi  Y  T  H  0  L  0  G  Y  .  77 

rider,  who  became  lame  or  blind,  and  wandered  about  the 
earth  till  the  day  of  his  death. 

BRIAKEUS  vel  iEGEON,  a  famous  giant,  who  had  100 
hands  and  fifty  heads,  called  by  men  JEgseon,  and  only  by 
the  gods  Briareus.  He  is  said  to  have  conquered  the 
Titans,  when  they  made  war  on  the  gods. 

CALYPSO,  one  of  the  ocean  nymphs  who  dwelt  in  the 
mythical  island  of  Ogygia,  on  which  Ulysses  was  ship- 
wrecked. 

CASTOR,  son  of  Jupiter  and  brother  of  Pollux,  distinguished 
for  his  skill  and  management  of  horses.  Castor  and  his 
brother  enjoyed  immortality,  and  were  called  the  Dioscuri, 

CENTAURI,  a  race  inhabiting  Mount  Pelion,  in  Thessaly, 
represented  as  half  men  and  half  hors^es ;  Chiron  was  the 
most  celebrated  of  the  Centaurs  (vide  Plrithous). 

CERBERUS,  the  dog  of  Pluto :  he  guarded  the  entrance  to 
Hades,  and  is  said  by  some  to  have  had  fifty  heads,  by 
others  only  three ;  his  den  was  near  the  spot  where  Charon 
landed  the  dead. 

CHARON,  a  son  of  Erebus  (darkness) :  he  conducted  the 
souls  of  the  departed  in  a  boat  over  the  rivers  Acheron 
and  Styx  to  the  lower  regions,  for  an  obolus  (about  l^d.) ; 
as  all  the  dead  were  obliged  to  pay,  a  small  coin  was 
usually  placed  in  the  mouth  of  the  deceased. 

CHIRON,  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Centaurs :  he  lived  on 
Mt.  Pelion,  and  was  famed  for  his  knowledge  of  hunting, 
medicine,  music,  and  prophecy ;  he  instructed  the  chief 
heroes  of  his  age,  namely,  Hercules,  Jason,  Achilles,  Pe- 
leus,  &c.,  and  was  wounded  accidentally  in  the  knee  by  a 
poisoned  arrow  shot  by  Hercules  in  his  contest  with  the 
Centaurs.  After  his  death,  Chiron  was  placed  among  the 
constellations  by  Zeus. 

CIRCE,  a  mythical  sorceress,  daughter  of  Sol  and  Perseus, 
celebrated  for  her  knowledge  of  magic  and  venomous 
herbs. 

COCYTUS,  a  river  in  Epirus,  and  tributary  of  the  Acheron , 
it  was  supposed  to  be  connected  with  the  lower  world,  and 
liencft  was  described  as  one  of  the  five  rivers  of  hell. 


78  MYTHOLOGY. 

CYCLOPE'^,  a  race  of  men  of  gigantic  stature  ;  they  had  but 
one  cirauar  eye  in  the  centre  of  their  forehead,  whence 
the  name  Kvatx«;t  ^  ;  they  were  three  in  number  according 
to  Hesiod,  and  called  Arges,  Brontes,  and  Steropes ;  but 
this  number  was  aft-^rsrards  increased. 

DiEDALUS,  the  moet  ingenious  artist  of  his  time:  he  in- 
vented sails  for  ships,  and  made  wings  with  wax  and 
feathers  for  himself  and  son  Icarus  ;  with  these  they  tool* 
flight  from  Crete :  but  the  hea."  of  the  sun  melted  the  wa^ 
on  the  Avings  of  Icarus,  and  he  fell  into  the  part  of  th^ 
ocean  called  after  him  the  Icarian  wSea. 

DAPHNE,  daughter  of  the  river-god  Pensus  in  Thessaly,  o^ 
Ladon  in  Arcadia :  she  was  much  beloved  by  Apollo,  snd 
fearful  of  being  caught  by  him,  was  changed  into  a  laurel 
tree,  which  thence  became  the  favourite  tree  of  Apollo. 

DEUCALION,  son  of  Prometheus,  and  king  of  Phthia  in 
Thessaly,  saved  with  his  wife  Pyrrha,  on  account  of  their 
piety,  when  Zeus  destroyed  by  a  flood  the  race  of  men. 
On  the  waters  subsiding,  Deucalion  and  Pyrrha  offered  a 
sacrifice,  and  consulted  the  oracle  of  Themis  how  the 
human  race  might  l)e  restored ;  the  oracle  ordered  them  to 
cast  behind  them  the  bones  of  their  mother,  which  they 
interpreting  to  be  the  Earth,  threw  stones  behind  their 
backs,  when  those  thrown  by  Deucalion  turned  into  men, 
and  those  by  Pyrrha  into  women. 

ELYSIUM,  a  place  in  the  lower  world,  the  abode  of  the  vir- 
tuous after  death :  the  Elysian  regions  are  placed  by  some 
in  the  middle  region  of  the  air  or  ocean  ;  by  others  in  the 
moon  and  sun ;  and  by  others  in  the  centre  of  the  earth, 
near  Taridrus, 

ENDYMION,  a  youth  celebrated  for  his  beauty  and  per- 
petual sleep. 

EREBUS  (signifying  darkness),  a  deity  of  hell ;  the  word  is 
applied  to  the  gloomy  regions,  the  abode  of  the  wicked  as 
well  as  of  the  good,  and  is  distinguished  both  from  Tar- 
tarus and  Elysium. 

EUROPA,  daughter  of  Agenor,  king  of  Phoenicia:  her  beauty 
captivated  Zeus,  who,  taking  the  form  of  a  bull,  mingled 


MYTHOLOGY.  79* 

with  the  herd  of  Agenor ;  when  Europa,  encouraged  by 
the  tameness  of  the  animal,  mounted  his  back,  whereupon 
Zeus  rushed  into  the  sea  and  swam  with  her  in  safety  to 
Crete,  where  she  became  the  mother  of  Minos,  Rhadaman- 
thus,  and  Sarpedon. 

GIGANTES,  the  giants,  sons  of  heaven  and  earth,  a  savagf 
race,  destroyed  on  account  of  their  insolence  to  the  gods. 

GORGONES,  three  celebrated  sisters,  daughters  of  Phorcyf 
the  sea  deity ;  their  names  were  Stheno,  Eurydle,  and  3fe- 
ddsa ;  they  were  frightful  creatures,  and  instead  of  haii 
their  heads  were  covered  with  serpents ;  they  had  wings, 
brazen  claws,  and  enormous  teeth.  Perseus  slew  Medusa, 
whose  head  was  placed  in  the  centre  of  Minerva's  shield, 
and  had  the  power  of  turning  all  that  looked  at  it  into  stone. 

HARPYl^,  winged  monsters,  with  the  face  of  a  woman  and 
body  of  a  vulture  ;  they  were  three  in  number,  Aello,  Cc- 
Iceuo,  and  Ocyptte. 

HERACLYDiE,  a  name  given  to  the  descendants  of  Her- 
cules, who,  with  the  Dorians,  conquered  the  Peloponnesus 
(B.C.  1104). 

HERCULES,  the  most  celebrated  hero  of  antiquity:  he  was 
the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Alcmena,  and  born  at  Thebes. 
Juno  early  plotted  his  destruction,  and  her  cruelty  ren- 
dered him  subject  to  the  will  of  Eurystheus,  king  of  My- 
cenae, who  imposed  on  him  twelve  labours  (vide  infra). 
His  first  exploit  previous  to  entering  the  service  of  Eurys- 
theus, was  killing  the  enormous  lion  Avhich  destroyed  the 
flocks  of  Amphitryon  and  of  Thespius,  king  of  Thespise : 
the  gods,  charmed  with  the  bravery  of  Hercules,  presented 
him  with  a  complete  suit  of  armour;  Jupiter  gave  a  shield, 
Apollo  a  bow  and  arrows,  Mercury  a  sword,  Vulcan  a 
golden  cuirass  and  a  club  of  brass,  and  Minerva  a  coat  of 
mail. 

UESPERIDES,  the  celebrated  guardians  of  the  golden  apples, 
which  Ge  gave  to  Juno  on  the  day  of  her  marriage  with 
Jupiter:  they  were  called  the  daughters  of  Atlas  arid  lies- 
peris,  whence  their  name ;  th'^y  resided  near  Mount  Atlas, 
in  Africa. 


80  MYTHOLOGY 

niPPOLYTE,  daughter  of  Mars,  queen  of  the  Araazones ; 
she  wore  a  girdle  given  her  by  her  father,  which  was  taken 
from  her  by  Hercules  (vide  9th  labour). 

HYPERION,  a  Titan,  son  of  Uranus  (heaven)  and  Ge  (earth), 
(father  of  Helios)  the  sun. 

HYADES  (i.  e.  the  rainy),  a  name  given  to  seven  nymphs, 
who  formed,  with  the  Pleiades,  the  constellation  known  by 
that  name. 

lAPETUS,  one  of  the  Titans;  being  the  father  of  Prometheus, 
he  was  regarded  by  the  Greeks  as  the  father  of  all  mankind. 

10,  the  daughter  of  Inachus,  king  of  Argos.  Hera  being 
jealous  of  her,  Zeus  changed  her  into  a  white  heifer:  Hera 
then  sent  the  hundred-eyed  Argus  to  watch  her  ;  but  he 
being  slain  by  Hermes,  the  goddess  persecuted  her  with  a 
gad-fly;  she  swam  across  the  Thracian  Bosporus  (hence  its 
name  Ox-ford),  and,  after  wandering  over  the  earth,  gave 
birth  to  Epaphus,  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile. 

IXION,  king  of  the  Lapithae,  and  father  of  Pirithous.  He 
treacherously  murdered  his  father-in-law,  Deioneus,  and 
having  proved  ungrateful  to  Zeus,  who  had  purified  him, 
the  god  condemned  him  to  be  tied  to  a  wheel  which  per- 
petually revolved  in  Hades. 

JASON,  the  celebrated  leader  of  the  Argonautae,  in  the  expe- 
dition to  Colchis ;  he  was  the  son  of  ^Eson  and  Alcimede, 
and  brought  up  by  the  Centaur  Chiron  (vide  Argonautic 
Expedition). 
LAPITH^,  a  savage  race  inhabiting  the  mountains  of  Thes- 

saly ;  Pirithous  was  their  king  (vide  Pirithous). 
LATONA    (Aj^fto),   a  Titaness,   the   mother   of  Apollo   and 

Diana. 
LEDA,  daughter  of  Thestius,  and  wife  of  Tyndarus,   king 
of  Sparta;  she  was  the  mother  of  Helena  by  Zeus,  who 
visited  her  in  the  form  of  a  swan. 
LETHE,  a  river  in  the  lower  world,  whose  waters,  if  the 
souls  of  the  dead  drank,  had  the  power  of  making  them 
forget  all  they  had  done  before  (derivation  7,iqOfj,  oblivion). 
MAIA,  daughter  of  Atlas,  and  one  of  the  Pleiades,  the  most 
luminovis  of  the  seven  sisters. 


MYTHOLOGY.  81^ 

MEDEA,  daughter  of  iEetes,  king  of  Colchis,  celebrated  for 
her  skill  in  music ;  she  fell  in  love  with  Jason,  and  assisted 
him  in  obtaining  the  golden  fleece  (vide  Argonautic  Expe- 
dition). 

MINOS,  son  of  Zeus  and  Europa,  brother  of  Rhadamantl  us 
and  the  king  and  legislator  of  Crete.  On  his  death,  Miuos 
became  one  of  the  judges  of  the  lower  world. 

NARCISSUS,  a  beautiful  youth,  changed  into  the  flower 
which  bears  his  name. 

NIOBE,  daughter  of  Tantalus,  sister  of  Pelops,  and  wife  of 
Amphion :  being  the  mother  of  seven  sons  and  daughters, 
she  considered  herself  superior  to  Latona,  who  had  borne 
only  two ;  for  this  conduct,  her  children  were  slain  by 
Apollo  and  Diana,  she  herself  being  turned  into  stone. 

ORION,  a  celebrated  giant,  sprung  from  Jupiter,  Neptune, 
and  Mercury ;  after  his  death,  Orion  was  placed  among 
the  constellations. 

ORPHEUS,  one  of  the  Argonauts,  supposed  to  be  a  son  of 
Apollo,  and  regarded  by  the  Greeks  as  the  most  celebrated 
of  the  early  poets.  His  skill  on  the  lyre  was  such  that  he 
charmed  even  Cerberus  and  the  inhabitants  of  Hades,  Avhen 
he  went  thither  to  recover  his  wife  E ury  dice,  whom  he  lost 
by  looking  back  upon  before  they  had  regained  the  earth. 

PANDORA  [rtavStJipa),  a  woman  so  named  from  having  re- 
ceived every  necessary  gift :  from  Venus,  beauty ;  from 
Mercury,  eloquence ;  and  from  Minerva,  splendid  orna- 
ments. Pandora  was  the  first  woman  on  earth,  and  made 
by  Vulcan  from  clay,  by  order  of  Jupiter,  who  might,  by 
her  charms,  bring  woes  upon  the  earth,  because  Prome- 
theus had  stolen  fire  from  heaven.  She  was  married  to 
Epimetheus,  brother 'of  Prometheus:  in  his  house  was  a 
jar  or  box,  which  he  had  been  forbidden  to  open ;  but 
Pandora^s  curiosity  could  not  resist  the  temptation,  and  as 
soon  as  it  was  opened  all  the  evils  incident  to  man  escaped, 
Hope  alone  being  left.  Others  relate  that  it  was  ajar,  not 
a  box,  which  Pandora  brought  from  heaven. 

PEGASUS,  a  celebrated  winged  horse  (sprung  from  the  blood 
of  Medusa,  me  of  the  Gorgons,  when  Perseus  cut  off  her 


82  MYTHOLOaY. 

head) :  he  is  described  as  the  thunder-bearer  of  Jupiter ; 
but  by  later  writers  as  the  horse  of  Aurora. 

PERSEUS,  a  famous  hero,  son  of  Jupiter  and  Danae,  and 
hnjHnind  of  Andromeda ;  he  is  said  to  have  founded  My- 
coua3  (vide  Gorgones). 

PllAETIlON  (i.  e.  the  shining),  a  surname  of  Sol,  commonly 
known  as  a  son  of  Sol  by  one  of  the  Oceanides :  he  was 
killed  by  Zeus  with  lightning,  for  his  attempt  to  drive  the 
chariot  of  the  sun  across  the  heavens. 

PIILEGETIION,  a  river  of  hell,  in  which  fire  flowed  instead 
of  water. 

PIERIDES,  a  name  given  to  the  Muses,  derived  from  Pieria, 
in  Thessaly,  where  they  were  first  worshipped. 

PIRITHOUS,  a  hero  worshipped  at  Athens,  and  king  of  the 
Lapithae,  in  Thessaly:  at  his  marriage  with  Hippodamia 
the  Centaur  Eurytion  carried  her  off;  which  occasioned 
the  war  between  the  Lapithas  and  Centaurs,  in  which  the 
latter  were  defeated. 

PLEIADES,  a  name  given  to  the  seven  daughters  of  Atlas — 
Eledra,  Maia,  Tdygtte,  Alcyone,  Celoeno,  Sterope,  Merope. 

POLLUX,  son  of  Jupiter  and  Leda,  and  brother  of  Castor, 
famed  for  his  skill  in  boxing  (vide  Castor). 

POLYPHEMUS,  son  of  Neptune,  a  celebrated  Cyclops,  who 
fed  on  human  flesh,  and  kept  his  flocks  on  the  coast  of 
Sicily. 

PROMETHEUS  (the  Forethinker),  the  son  of  lapetus,  one  of 
the  Titans.  Jupiter,  to  punish  him  and  the  rest  of  man- 
kind, deprived  the  earth  of  fire ;  but  Prometheus  stole  it 
from  heaven,  for  which  Zeus  chained  him  on  Mount  Cau- 
casus, where  an  eagle  preyed  on  his  liver  for  ages :  it  was 
ultimately  slain  by  Hercules. 

PSYCHE,  ("^vxr}),  signifying  "  the  soul,"  a  nymph  whom 
Cupid  married:  Yenus  for  a  time  imposed  on  her  the  most 
unpleasant  labours,  which  well-nigh  killed  her:  but  Ju- 
piter, at  Cupid's  request,  conferred  on  her  immortality. 

PYTHON,  a  celebrated  serpent,  lived  in  the  caves  of  Mount 
Parnassus,  and  was  slain  by  Apollo,  who,  in  commemora- 
tion of  his  victory,  founded  the  Pythian  games. 


MYTHOLOGY.  §^ 

RHADAMANTHUS,  son  of  Zeus  and  Europa,  and  brother 
of  Minos,  king  of  Crete,  from  whom  he  fled  to  Boeotia,  and 
married  Alcmene.  From  his  justice  throughout  life,  he 
became  after  death  one  of  the  judges  of  hell. 

RHEA,  OPS  or  CYBELE,  daughter  of  Coelus  and  Terra,  wife 
of  Saturn,  and  mother  of  Jupiter  and  the  gods. 

SATYRI,  the  name  of  a  class  of  demigods,  attendants  on 
Bacchus,  represented  with  the  legs  and  feet  of  a  goat, 
short  horns,  bristly  hair,  and  pointed  ears;  the  elder  Satyrs 
were  called  Sileni. 

SIRENES,  sea  nymphs,  who  had  the  power  of  charming  by 
their  songs  all  who  heard  them :  they  are  usually  stated  to 
have  been  three  in  number,  the  daughters  of  Phoroys,  a 
sea  deity.  Ulysses,  when  sailing  near  their  abode,  stopped 
the  ears  of  his  companions  with  wax,  and  tied  himself  to 
the  mast,  to  avoid  being  charmed  by  their  songs,  and  thus 
delayed. 

SPHYNX,  a  monster  who  had  the  head  and  breasts  of  a 
woman,  body  of  a  dog,  tail  of  a  serpent,  wings  of  a  bird, 
paws  of  a  lion,  and  a  human  voice. 

STYX,  one  of  the  rivers  of  hell,  round  which  it  was  said  to 
flow  nine  times:  it  was  held  in  such  veneration  by  tlio 
gods,  that  they  took  oaths  by  it;  and  Zeus  caused  those 
who  swore  falsely  to  drink  of  it,  which  had  the  effect  of 
stupefying  them  for  a  year. 

TARTARUS,  one  of  the  regions  of  Hades  or  hell,  where  the 
most  impious  of  men  were  punished.  The  principal  cri- 
minals were,  1.  Tityus,  slain  by  Apollo  and  Diana  for 
his  conduct  to  their  mother,  Latona ;  in  Tartarus  his  body 
covered  nine  acres  of  land,  and  a  vulture  preyed,  without 
ceasing,  on  his  liver.  2.  Ixion,  fixed  by  Zeus  on  a  revolv- 
ing wheel  for  having  aspired  to  the  love  of  Juno.  3.  Tan- 
talus, who,  for  having,  at  an  entertainment  given  by  him 
to  the  gods,  served  up  the  flesh  of  his  son  Pelops,  was 
punished  with  insatiable  thirst;  he  is  represented  as  placed 
up  to  the  chin  in  a  pool  of  water,  which  floAved  away  when- 
ever he  attempted  to  taste  it.  4.  Sisyphus,  a  son  of 
.ffiolus,  and  king  of  Corinth;  he  is  said  to  have  greatly 


84  MYTHOLOGY. 

promoted  navigation  and  commerce ;  but  his  wickedness 
was  great,  and  as  a  punishment  for  his  crimes,  he  was 
condemned  in  hell  to  roll  to  the  top  of  a  hill  a  large 
stone,  which  no  sooner  readied  the  summit  than  it  rolled 
down  again  into  the  plain.  5.  The  Dan  aides,  forty-nine 
maidens,  who,  for  stabbing  their  husbands,  the  sons  of 
-^gyptus,  on  their  wedding-night,  were  sentenced  to  iill  a 
perforated  tub  with  water.  Hy  perm  nostra,  the  fiftieth, 
spared  the  life  of  her  husband,  Lynceus. 

TITANES,  children  of  Uranus  and  Ge :  they  were  twelve  in 
number,  six  sons  and  six  daughters,  viz.  Oceanus,  Ceus, 
Crius,  Hyperion,  lapetus,  Cronus:  Thea,  Rhea,  Themis, 
Mnemosyne,  Phoebe,  Tethys.  Zeus  and  his  brothers  re- 
belled and  waged  war  against  Saturn  and  the  Titans :  this 
contest  was  carried  on  for  ten  years,  Saturn's  party  fighting 
from  Mount  Othrys,  Jupiter's  from  Mount  Olympus;  at 
length  Jupiter  released  the  Hecaton-Oheires  (the  hundred- 
handed),  the  Titans  were  defeated  and  confined  in  Tar- 
tarus. The  name  Titanes  is  also  given  to  the  descendants 
of  the  Titans. 

TRITON,  a  son  of  Neptune  and  Amphitrite:  he  is  repre- 
sented riding  over  the  sea  on  horses  or  sea-monsters,  hold- 
ing a  trumpet  made  out  of  a  shell  (concha). 

TYPHON,  a  monstrous  giant,  described  as  having  a  hundred 
heads,  and  vomiting  flame.  He  was  no  sooner  born,  than 
he  made  war  against  the  gods,  who  were  so  terrified  that 
they  assumed  diff"erent  shapes,  Jupiter  a  ram,  &c. ;  eventu- 
ally, Typhon  was  crushed  by  a  thunderbolt  from  Jupiter, 
and  placed  under  Mount  MtnsL. 


EARLY  GRECIAJS'  LEGENDS. 


THE  AEGONAUTIC  EXPEDITION. 

Athamas,  a  king  of  Boeotia,  married  Nephele,  by  whom  he 
had  two  children,  Phrixus  and  Ilelle.  On  the  death  of  his 
•wife,  Athamas  married  Ino,  whose  jealousy  of  her  step-chil- 
dren induced  her  to  destroy  them ;  they,  however,  contrived 
to  escape,  and  attempted  to  cross  the  sea  to  Colchis,  on  the 
back  of  a  golden-fleeced  ram,  given  by  Hermes.  Helle,  being 
unable  to  keep  her  seat,  was  drowned  in  the  strait  called 
from  her  the  Hellespont.  Phrixus,  having  reached  Col- 
chis in  safety,  offered  up  the  ram  to  Zeus,  and  presented  the 
fleece  to  King  Metes,  who  had  received  him  kindly;  the 
fleece  was  nailed  to  an  oak  in  the  sacred  grove  of  Mars,  and 
guarded  by  a  dragon. 

Jason,  son  of  uEson,  king  of  lolcos,  in  Thessaly,  undertook 
to  recover  this  fleece.  He  gave  orders  to  Argus,  a  son  of 
Phrixus  (who  was  assisted  by  Minerva),  to  build  a  vessel  of 
fifty  oars;  the  ship  was  named  **  Argo,^^  from  the  builder,  and 
those  who  went  on  the  expedition  "  Argonautas'^  (i.e.  ''sailors 
of  the  Argo").  Jason  was  accompanied  by  the  most  re- 
nowned heroes  of  the  time,  to  the  number  of  fifty ;  among 
whom  were  Hercules,  Theseus,  Pirithous,  Castor  and 
Pollux,  Telamon,  Peleus,  Admetus,  Oileus,  Neleus, 
Laertes,  Mencetius,  Orpheus  the  minstrel,  Mopsus  the 
seer,  iEsculapius  the  physician,  Tiphys  the  pilot.  After 
various  adventures,  the  Argo  entered  the  river  Phasis,  in 
Colchis,  the  heroes  landed,  and  Jason  immediately  informed 
the  king  of  his  mission  ;  the  monarch  consented  to  his  taking 
the  fleece,  provided  he  performed  the  necessary  conditions, 
8  (85) 


86      EARLY   LEGENDS   RELATING    TO    THEBES. 

viz.,  ploughing  a  piece  of  land  with  the  brazen-footed  bulls 
of  Vulcan,  sowing  it  with  the  teeth  of  the  dragon  slain  by 
Cadmus,  and  destroying  the  armed  crop  which  would  spring 
up.  Medea,  the  king's  daughter,  fell  in  love  with  Jason, 
and  with  her  assistance  he  obtained  the  golden  fleece,  and 
left  the  country,  accompanied  by  Medea,  ^etes,  finding 
that  Jason  had  departed,  and  taken  his  daughter,  got  on 
shipboard,  and  pursued ;  but,  to  detain  him,  Medea  murdered 
her  brother  Absyrtus,  and  cut  him  in  pieces,  so  that,  while 
her  father  was  collecting  the  scattered  limbs,  the  Argo 
escaped,  and  eventually  arrived  in  safety  at  lolcos. 


EARLY  LP]GENDS  RELATING  TO  THEBES. 

Thebes,  the  Capital  of  Boeotia,  is  said  to  have  been  founded 
(c.  B.C.  1500)  by  CADMUS,  son  of  Agenor,  king  of  Phoenicia. 
According  to  the  legend,  Cadmus,  failing  to  find  his  sister 
E  uropa,  who  had  been  carried  off  by  Zeus,  settled  in  Thrace, 
and  being  ordered  by  the  Delphic  Oracle  to  build  a  town 
where  a  cow,  which  he  was  to  follow,  should  sink  down  with 
fatigue,  he  founded  Cad  me  a,  the  citadel  of  Thebes.  He 
also  there  killed  a  dragon  which  guarded  a  well  of  Ares, 
and,  by  the  instruction  of  Athena,  sowed  its  teeth,  from 
which  armed  men,  called  Sparti  (i.  e.  sown)^  sprung  up  and 
slew  each  other,  except  five,  who  became  the  ancestors  of  the 
Thebans. 

Cadmus  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Poly  dor  us,  who  was 
in  turn  succeeded  by  his  son  Labdacus.  He  was  the  father 
of  Lai  us,  the  next  king,  who  had  a  son,  (Edipus,  by  Jo- 
casta,  the  daughter  of  Menoeceus  and  sister  of  Creon. 

STORY  OF  (EDIPUS,  AND  OF  THE  WAR  OF 
THE  SEVEN  AGAINST  THEBES. 

An  Oracle  having  foretold  that  Lai  us  should  be  slain  by 
his  son,  (Edipus  was  exposed  at  his  birth  on  Mt.  CithaercD, 


THE    SEVEN    AGAINST   THEBES.  87 

but  was  found  by  a  shepherd,  who  (from  his  feot  being 
pierced  through)  gave  him  the  name  of  Olhiytov^  (i.  e.  siooUen- 
footed),  and  brought  him  to  his  master,  Poly  bus,  king  of 
Corinth,  and  husband  of  Me  rope  or  Periboea,  and  by 
whom  CEdipus  was  brought  up.  On  attaining  manhood,  his 
birthright  being  called. in  question,  CEdipus  consulted  the 
Delphic  Oracle,  which  replied  that  he  was  destined  to  slay 
his  father  and  marry  his  mother.  Soon  afterwards,  near 
Daulis,  he  met  his  father  in  a  chariot,  and,  refusing  to  make 
way  for  him,  was  struck  by  Laius,  whom  he  killed,  together 
with  the  slight  escort  which  attended  the  chariot.  Purposely 
avoiding  Corinth,  he  arrived  at  Thebes,  where  ho  foiled  the 
Sphynx,  a  monster  who  used  to  murder  all  those  who  were 
unable  to  solve  the  riddles  which  she  put  to  them.  CEdipus 
having  explained  the  riddle  of  the  being  with  four,  two,  and 
thi^ee  feet,  to  mean  man  craioling  in  infancy,  walking  in  marir 
liood,  and  leaning  on  a  staff  in  old  age,  the  monster  was  so 
enraged  at  the  solution,  that  she  threw  herself  down  from 
the  rock  on  which  she  was  seated.  The  Thebans,  according 
to  their  promise,  rewarded  CEdipus  with  the  hand  of  their 
queen,  Jo  cast  a,  by  whom  he  became  the  father  as  well  as 
brother  of  Eteocles,  Polynices,  Antigone,  and  Ismene. 
In  consequence  of  his  marriage  a  plague  was  sent,  and  Creon 
brought  back  word  from  Delphi  that  the  murderer  of  Laius 
must  be  banished.  Tire  si  as,  the  blind  seer,  forced  by 
CEdipus,  revealed  to  him  his  crimes ;  whereupon  Jocasta 
hung  herself,  and  Oedipus  put  out  his  own  e^^es,  was  expelled 
by  his  sons,  and  wandered  an  outcast,  under  the  guidance  of 
his  daughter  Antigone,  to  Colonos,  in  Attica,  where  he 
died.  Eteocles  having  violated  the  agreement  with  Polynices 
to  reign  in  turns,  the  latter  fled  to  Adrastus,  king  of  Argos, 
married  his  daughter  Argia,  and  persuaded  her  father  to 
assist  him  against  Eteocles.  Polynices,  accompanied  by 
Adrastus,  Tydeus,  Amphiaraus,  Capaneus,  Ilippo- 
medon,  and  Parthenopasus,  advanced  against  Thebes, 
and  each  assailed  one  of  its  seven  gates ;  but  were  all  slain 
except  Adrastus ;  Eteocles  and  Polynices  falling  by  each 
other's  hands.    Antigone  performed  the  rites  of  burial  over 


W  EARLY     KINGS     OF     TROY. 

Polynices,  in  defiance  of  the  orders  of  Creon  (who  was  regent 
for  Lao  da  mas,  son  of  Eteocles),  and  was  buried  alive  by  her 
uncle's  command;  whereupon  Hsemon,  her  lover,  son  of 
Oreon,  slew  himself  in  despair.  Ten  years  after  the  war  of 
the  ''Seven  against  Thebes,'^  the  descendants  ('ErttywoO  of 
the  heroes  stormed  Thebes,  and  razed  it  to  the  ground. 


EARLY  KINGS  OF  TROY. 

1.  TEUCER  (c.  B.C.  1400?),  hence  the  Trojans  were  called 
Teucri.  His  daughter  Batea  married — 2.  DARDANUS,  who 
came  from  Arcadia  and  Samothrace,  and  built  Dardania, 
hence  the  name  Dardanelles.  3.  ERICTHONIUS,  his  son, 
was  the  wealthiest  of  mortals,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
—  4.  TROS,  hence  Troja,  Troy;  he  was  the  father,  by  Cal- 
lirhoe,  of — 5.  ILUS,  after  whom  Troy  was  called  Ilium. 
The  brothers  of  Ilus  were  Assaracus  (grandfather  of 
J^neas)  and  Ganymedes,  who  was  carried  off  by  Zeus  to  be 
his  cup-bearer,  in  place  of  Hebe.  Tros  was  compensated  for 
his  loss  by  a  present  of  horses.  Zeus  also  gave  Ilus  the 
Palladium,  or  image  of  Pallas,  with  the  promise  that,  as 
long  as  it  remained  in  Troy,  the  city  should  be  safe.  G. 
LAOMEDON,  son  of  Ilus,  and  husband  of  Strymo.  Jupiter 
condemned  Neptune  and  Apollo  to  serve  him  for  a  year ;  the 
former  built  the  walls  of  his  city,  the  latter  became  his  shep- 
herd. Upon  his  insolently  refusing  them  their  wages,  Nep- 
tune sent  a  sea-monster  to  ravage  the  country.  He  si  one, 
the  daughter  of  Laomedon,  was  chosen  by  lot  as  a  sacrifice 
to  appease  this  scourge ;  but  Hercules  came  to  her  assistance, 
and  offered  to  save  her  if  the  king  would  give  him  the  horses 
of  Zeus.  After  Hercules  had  slain  the  monster,  Laomedon 
refused  to  fulfil  the  conditions  he  had  agreed  to ;  the  hero 
therefore  slew  him  and  all  his  sons,  except  Priam,  whom 
Ilesione  ransomed  with  her  veil.  7.  PRIAM  (i.  e.  ransomed, 
rtpt'ttiuat),  originally  called  Podarces,  married  Hecuba,  by 
whom    he  had   Hector,    Paris,    Ilelenus,    Deiphobus, 


LEGEND   OF   THE   TROJAN   WAR.  89 

Polydorus,  Troilus,  also  Creusa,  Laodice,  Polyxena, 
Cassandra,  and  other  children.  At  the  taking  of  Troy,  he 
was  slain  by  Pyrrhus  at  the  altar  of  Zeus,  before  which  his 
son  Polites  had  just  fallen  by  the  same  hand. 


LEGEND  OF  THE  TROJAN  WAR. 

B.C.  1194  — B.C.  1184. 

To  the  marriage  of  Pel e us,  king  of  the  Myrmidons,  in 
Thessaly,  and  Thetis,  parents  of  Achilles,  all  the  deities 
were  invited,  except  the  Goddess  of  Discord  ("Epcj),  who,  in 
revenge,  thrcAV  among  the  guests  a  golden  apple,  inscribed 
"  To  the  fairest."  Juno,  Venus,  and  ^Jinerva  each  claim- 
ing it,  Jupiter  referred  the  decision  to  Paris,  also  called 
Alexander,  a  son  of  Priam,  and  at  that  time  a  shepherd  on 
Mt.  Gargarus  (a  part  of  Mt.  Ida),  on  which  he  had  been 
exposed  at  his  birth,  owing  to  his  mother  Hecuba  having 
dreamed  that  she  had  brought  forth  a  firebrand,  which 
should  devastate  Troy.  Paris,  at  the  risk  of  drawing  down 
on  himself  and  on  his  country  the  resentment  of  the  two 
other  goddesses,  awarded  the  apple  to  Venus,  who  had  pro- 
mised him  the  most  beautiful  woman  for  his  wife.  This  was 
Helen,  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Leda,  and  wife  of  Mene- 
laus,  king  of  Sparta,  whence  Paris  carried  her  off,  together 
with  the  treasures  of  her  husband.  Upon  the  commission  of 
this  outrage,  the  various  Grecian  chieftains,  who  had  been 
suitors  of  Helen,  collected  at  Aulis,  in  Boeotia,  an  army  of 
about  100,000  men,  and  a  fleet  of  1186  ships,  and  placed 
them  under  the  command  of  Agamemnon,  king  of  Mycenas, 
brother  to  Menelaus,  and  the  most  powerful  of  the  Greeks. 
Before,  however,  the  expedition  started,  Menelaus  and  Ulysses 
attempted  a  fruitless  negotiation  at  Troy.  Agamemnon  hav- 
ing, at  Aulis,  killed  a  stag  sacred  to  Diana,  a  pestilence  was 
sent  on  his  followers,  and  a  calm  detained  their  vessels. 
Calchas  (the  son  of  Thestor)  the  Grecian  soothsayer,  ordered 
him  to  appease  the  anger  of  the  goddess  by  sacrificing  his 


90  LEGEND   0,P   THE   TROJAN   WAR. 

daughter  Ipbigenia.  Diana,  however,  substituted  a  stag  as  a 
victim,  and  carried  off  Ipbigenia  to  be  her  priestess  at  Tau- 
ris,  where  she  subsequently  delivered  her  brother  Orestes, 
when  he  was  on  the  point  of  being  sacrificed  to  Diana. 

The  Greeks,  on  their  arrival  at  Troy,  drew  their  ships  on 
shore,  and  surrounded  them  with  a  fortification ;  but  being 
unable  to  take  the  city,  they  blockaded  it,  and  ravaged  the 
neighbouring  country.  Among  the  spoils  of  Chrysa  (one  of 
the  captured  cities)  was  Chryseis,  who  fell  to  the  lot  of 
Agamemnon.  On  his  refusing  to  release  her,  Chryses,  her 
father,  obtained  from  Apollo,  whose  priest  he  was,  the  inflic- 
tion of  a  pestilence  on  the  Greeks.  Calchas  having  declared 
the  cause  of  the  plague,  Chryseis  was  released,  and  Aga- 
memnon consoled  himself  by  taking  away  B  rise  is  from 
Achilles,  into  whose  hands  she  had  Mien  at  the  capture  of 
Lyrnessus.  Achilles,  being  deeply  enraged,  refused  to  take 
any  further  part  in  the  war  ;  at  last,  finding  that  the  Greeks, 
from  being  deprived  of  his  aid,  were  worsted,  and  even  their 
ships  assailed  with  fire,  he  permitted  his  friend  Patroclus 
to  put  on  his  armour,  and  lead  his  Myrmidons  to  the  fight. 
Patroclus  was  slain  by  Hector;  and  Achilles,  in  consequence, 
roused  by  grief  and  resentment,  and  being  furnished  by  his 
mother  with  fresh  armour,  forged  by  Vulcan,  rescued  his 
friend's  dead  body,  and  burnt  it.  He  then  pursued  Hector 
thrice  round  the  walls  of  Troy,  slew  him,  tied  him  to  his 
chariot,  and  dragged  him  to  the  ships. 

The  aged  Priam  ransomed  in  person  his  son^s  corpse,  and 
buried  it:  with  this  event,  the  subject  of  the  Iliad  of  Homer 
closes.  The  same  poem  also  relates  several  single  combats 
between  the  various  heroes,  in  w^hich  the  gods  and  goddesses 
often  take  part;  Juno,  Minerva,  Neptune,  Mercury, 
and  Vulcan,  espousing  the  side  of  the  Greeks,  while  Mars, 
Phoebus,  Diana,  Venus,  and  Latona,  aid  the  Trojans. 
Homer  also  gives  an  account  of  the  slaughter,  by  Ulysses 
and  Diomedes,  of  Rhesus,  king  of  Thrace,  and  the  carrying 
off  his  snow-white  horses  before  they  drank  of  the  Xanthus. 
And  fed  on  the  Trojan  plains;  which  had  they  done,  Troy,  ac- 
cording to  a  prediction  of  an  oracle,  could  not  have  been  taken. 


GRECIAN    HEROES,    ETC.  91 

Helenas  (son  of  Priam),  who  had  deserted  from  tho 
Trojans,  having  foretold  that  the  presence  of  Pyrrhu*  or 
Neoptolemus  (son  of  Achilles  and  Deidamia)  and  Phi- 
loctetes  was  necessary  for  the  success  of  the  Greeks,  the 
former  was  brought  by  Ulysses  from  the  court  of  his  grano 
father,  Lycomedes,  king  of  Scyros ;  and  afterwards  eitht> 
he  or  Diomedes  aided  Ulysses  in  bringing  Phixoctetev, 
who  had  been  bitten  by  a  serpent  nine  years  previously,  and 
left  behind  at  Lemnos  by  the  Greeks,  on  their  way  to  Troy. 
Philoctetcs,  being  cured  on  his  arrival,  emplo^^ed  against  the 
Trojans  the  arrows  Hercules  had  given  him,  and  mortally 
wounded  Paris.  The  carrying  off  the  Palladium  from 
Troy  is  ascribed  to  Diomedes  and  Ulysses  ;  and  the  latter 
hero  has  also  the  credit  of  contriving  the  huge  wooden  horse 
(constructed  by  Epeus,  with  the  aid  of  Minerva),  which 
Sinon,  a  pretended  deserter,  persuaded  the  Trojans  had  been 
left  by  the  Greeks,  on  their  departure  for  the  Peloponnesus, 
as  an  atonement  for  carrying  off  the  Palladium,  and  made  of 
a  large  size,  in  order  that  it  might  not  be  drawn  into  the  city. 
Notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  Laocoon  (who,  with  his 
two  sons,  was  killed  by  serpents  sent  by  Pallas),  the  in- 
fattjated  Trojans  drag  the  horse  within  their  walls,  and 
Sinon  by  night  releases  the  Greeks  who  had  been  concealed 
in  it.  Meanwhile  the  Grecian  army,  which  had  retired  only 
to  Tenedos,  arrives,  and  the  ill-fated  city  is  sacked  and  burnt. 
iEneas,  howcer,  escapes,  with  his  father,  son,  and  house- 
hold gods  (his  wife,  C  reus  a,  being  parted  from  him  in  the 
confusion) ;  and,  after  many  adventures,  he  reaches  Italy, 
and  founds  Lavinium. 


GEECIAN  HEROES,  &c.,  CONNECTED  WITH 
THE  TROJAN  WAR. 

ACHILLES,  son  of  Peleus  and  Thetis  ;  leader  of  the  Myj-mi- 
dons  from  Plithiotis,  in  Thessdly.  His  mother  gave  him 
the  choice  between  a  long  but  inglorious  life,  and  one  of 


02  GRECIAN    HEROES,    ETC. 

renown  and  short  duration ;  the  latter  of  which  he  chose. 
Thetis,  knowing  his  fate,  concealed  him,  when  a  child, 
among  the  daughters  of  Lycomedes,  king  of  Scyros ;  but 
Ulysses  discovered  his  place  of  concealment.  He  was  re- 
luctantly led  to  the  Trojan  war,  of  which  he  was  the  chief 
hero,  and,  after  exhibiting  deeds  of  great  prowess,  he  was 
slain  in  battle,  at  the  Scsean  Gate,  before  the  capture  of 
Troy ;  but  some  say  he  was  shot  by  Paris  in  the  heel,  the 
only  part  of  his  body  which  was  vulnerable,  Thetis  having 
held  him  there  when  she  dipped  him  in  the  Styx. 

AGAMEMNON,  son  of  Atreus  and  grandson  of  Pelops,  and 
commander-in-chief  in  the  Trojan  war.  On  his  return  to 
Mycenae,  he  was  slain  by  his  wife,  Clytemnestra,  daughter 
of  Tyndarus,  who  had  married  ^Egisthus  in  her  husband's 
absence.  Orestes,  aided  by  his  friend  Pylades,  avenged 
his  fiither's  death. 

AJAX,  son  of  Oileus,  king  of  the  Locrians.  On  his  return 
from  the  war,  he  was  drowned  by  Neptune,  for  setting  at 
nought  the  god's  assistance  during  a  shipwreck,  in  which 
his  companions  perished.  Virgil  relates  that  he  was  dashed 
on  a  rock  by  Minerva,  in  whose  temple  he  had  insulted 
Cassandra,  at  the  capture  of  Troy. 

AJAX,  son  of  Telamon,  king  of  Salamis,  and  inferior  only  to 
Achilles  in  bravery.  Ulysses  having  defeated  him  in  the 
contest  for  the  armour  of  Achilles,  he  became  mad,  and 
slaughtered  a  flock  of  sheep,  imagining  them  to  be  the 
Greeks ;  on  discovering  his  mistake,  he  committed  suicide. 
By  Tecmessa  he  had  a  son,  Eurysaces,  named  after 
his  father's  broad  shield. 

ANTIIiOCHUS,  son  of  Nestor ;  slain  at  Troy  by  Memnon. 
after  many  deeds  of  bravery. 

AUTOMEDON,  charioteer  and  companion  of  Achilles,  and 
afterwards  of  Pyrrhus. 

CALCIIAS,  the  soothsayer  who  foretold  the  length  of  the 
Trojan  war,  and  died  of  grief  because  Mopsus  excelled  him 
in  his  art. 

DIOMEDES  or  TYDIDES,  son  of  Tydeus  and  Deipyle ;  king 
of  Argos.     On  his  return  from  the  war,  finding  his  wife, 


GRECIAN    HEROES,    ETC.  93 

iEgialea,  married  to  Hippolytus,  he  went  to  ^tolia.  Aa 
he  was  returning,  a  storm  cast  him  on  the  coast  of  Daunia, 
in  Apulia,  Avhere  he  is  said  to  have  founded  several  towns, 
Arpi,  Beneventum,  Brundusium,  Venusia,  &o 

HELENA,  daughter  of  Zeus  and  Leda.  On  the  death  of 
Paris,  she  married  his  brother,  Deiphobus,  but  afterwards 
became  reconciled  to  her  former  husband,  Menelaus. 

IDOMENEUS,  son  of  the  Cretan  Deucalion,  king  of  Crete ; 
one  of  the  bravest  warriors  on  the  side  of  the  Greeks.  It 
is  said  that  he  sacrificed  his  son  (who  first  met  him  on  his 
return)  to  Neptune,  owing  to  a  rash  vow  he  had  made  in  a 
storm. 

LAODICE  or  ELECTRA.  After  the  murder  of  her  father, 
Agamemnon,  she  sent  her  brother,  Orestes,  to  King  Stro- 
phius,  in  Phocis,  where  he  became  intimate  with  Pylades, 
whom  Electra  married,'  after  she  had  incited  Orestes  to 
avenge  his  father's  death. 

MACHAON,  son  of  iEsculapius,  and  surgeon  of  the  Greeks. 

MENELAUS,  son  of  Atreus,  and  husband  of  Helen,  by  whom 
he  had  Hermione,  wife  of  Neoptolemus. 

MERIONES,  a  brave  warrior,  who  came  with  Idomeneus 
from  Crete. 

NEOPTOLEMUS  or  PYRRHUS,  son  of  Achilles;  called 
Neoptolemus  {vio^,  7i{t)6'Keixos),  because  he  came  late  to  the 
Trojan  ivar,  and  Pyrrhus  {Ttvppo^),  from  the  bright  red  colour 
of  his  hair.     He  was  slain  at  Delphi. 

NESTOR,  son  of  Neleus,  king  of  Pylos,  in  Elis,  and  the  most 
venerable  of  the  Greeks,  by  whom  he  was  greatly  respected 
for  his  wisdom,  oratory,  and  skill  in  war. 

PATROCLUS,  the  intimate  friend  of  Achilles.  He  was  son 
of  Menoctius,  the  brother  of  iEacus,  who  was  grandfather 
to  Achilles. 

PHILOCTETES,  the  best  archer  in  the  Trojan  war.  He  was 
the  friend  of  Hercules,  who  gave  him  his  poisoned  arrows, 
as  a  reward  for  setting  fire  to  the  pile  on  Mt.  CEta,  on 
which  Hercules  burnt  himself. 

PHCENIX,  son  of  Amyntor.     He  fled  to   Peleus,  king  of 


94  GRECIAN    HEROES,    ETC. 

Tiiessaly,  who  made  him  ruler  of  the  Dolopes,  and  tutor 
of  Achilles,  whom  he  accompanied  to  the  Trojan  war. 

PYRRHUS.     See  Neoptolemus. 

STIIENELUS,  son  of  Capaneus,  and  friend  of  Diomedes. 

TALTIIYBIUS,  herald  of  Agamemnon. 

TEUCER,  son  of  Telamon,  king  of  Salamis,  who  refused  tc 
receive  him  on  his  return  from  Troy,  because  he  had  not 
avenged  his  half-brother  Ajax's  death.  Teucer  sailed  to 
Cyprus,  and  there  founded  a  second  Salamis. 

ULYSSES  ('OSucrcTEvj),  son  of  Anticlea  and  Laertes,  king  of 
Ithaca.  To  avoid  going  to  the  Trojan  war,  he  feigned 
madness,  by  yoking  an  ox  and  an  ass  together,  and  plough- 
ing the  sea-shore,  which  he  sowed  with  salt.  Palamedes 
detected  him,  by  placing  his  infant  son,  Telemachus, 
before  the  plough,  which  the  ftither  stopped.  After  he 
left  Troy,  he  underwent  a  variety  of  adventures,  which  are 
related  in  Homer's  "  Odyssey.'^  He  blinded  the  Cyclops 
Polyphemus,  who  had  devoured  six  of  his  companions. 
After  encountering  various  dangers  from  the  Sirens  (vide 
Mythol.),  from  shipwreck,  and  at  the  islands  of  ^olus, 
iEea  (inhabited  by  the  sorceress  Circe,  who  changed  his 
associates  into  swine),  Sicily,  Ogygia  (where  be  was  de- 
tained by  Calypso,  vide  Mythol.),  and  Scheria,  he  reached 
Ithaca.  In  the  meantime,  the  hand  of  his  wife,  Penelope, 
had  been  sought  by  numerous  suitors,  whom  she  had  de- 
clined answering  till  she  should  have  finished  a  web  or 
robe  for  Laertes  ;  this  she  contrived  to  delay,  by  undoing 
by  night  her  day's  work.  At  last  Ulysses,  after  an  absence 
of  twenty  years,  arrived  in  the  disguise  of  a  beggar ;  and, 
after  vanquishing  the  suitors  in  drawing  the  bow  of  Eury- 
tus,  he  slew  them,  by  the  aid  of  Telemachus  and  Minerva, 
and  was  recognized  by  his  wife  and  aged  father. 


TROJAN     HEROES,    ETC. 


TROJAN  HEROES,  &c. 

ACESTES,  son  of  the  Sicilian  river-god  Crimisus,  and  the 
Trojan  Egosta  or  Segesta.  He  aided  Priam  in  the  Trojan 
war,  and  afterwards,  together  with  Elymus  (son  of  An- 
chises),  hospitably  received  iEneas,  who  built  the  towns 
of  JEgesta  and  Elyme,  in  Sicily. 

^NEAS,  son  of  Anchises  and  Venus,  and  one  of  the  bravest 
of  the  Trojans.  By  his  wife,  Creusa  (who  was  parted  from 
him  in  the  confusion  at  the  taking  of  Troy),  he  had  a  son, 
Ascanius  or  lulus.  After  escaping  from  Troy,  he  wan- 
dered over  the  iEgean  and  Ionian  Seas  to  Sicily,  and  La- 
tium,  in  Italy,  where  he  married  Lavinia,  daughter  of 
the  king  Latin  us,  and  built  Lavinium.  Latin  us  and 
Turn  us,  king  of  the  Rutuli,  having  fallen  in  battle,  ^neas 
succeeded  to  their  power,  but  was  slain  by  Mezentius, 
king  of  the  Rutuli.  Virgil,  by  an  anachronism,  represents 
^neas  as  visiting  Dido,  queen  of  Carthage,  who  fell  in 
love  with  him,  and  burnt  herself  alive  on  his  leaving  her. 

ALEXANDER.     See  Paris,  page  89. 

ANCHISES,  father  of  JEneas  by  Venus.  Having  accom- 
panied his  son  after  the  fall  of  Troy,  he  died  in  Sicily,  and 
was  buried  on  Mt.  Eryx. 

ANDROMACHE,  daughter  of  Eetion  (king  of  Thebes,  in 
Cilicia),  and  wife  of  Hector,  by  whom  she  had  Scaman- 
drius  or  Astyanax.  At  the  capture  of  Troy,  her  son 
was  thrown  from  the  walls,  and  she  became  the  prize  of 
Pyrrhus,  but  afterwards  married  Helenus,  king  of  Chaonia, 
in  Epirus. 

ANTENOR,  one  of  the  wisest  of  the  Trojans.  He  advised 
the  surrender  of  Helen  before  the  war  began.  After  it 
was  over,  he  is  said  to  have  founded  Patavium  (Padua), 
in  Italy. 

CASSANDRA,  daughter  of  Priam;  loved  by  Apollo,  Avho 
gave  her  the  gift  of  prophecy ;  but,  on  her  offending  the 
god,  he  caused  her  prophecies  to  be  discredited.  At  the 
taking  of  Troy,  she  was  insulted  by  Ajax,  son  of  Olleus, 


96  TROJAN     HEROES,    ETC. 

in  the  temple  of  Minerva.  She  afterwards  became  the 
prize  of  xVgameninon,  and  was  murdered,  at  Mycenge,  by 
Clytemnestra. 

OORCEBUS,  a  Phrygian;  son  of  Mygdon.  He  fought  at 
Troy  wi:h  the  hope  of  marrying  Cassandra,  but  was  killed 
by  Peneleus  or  by  Pyrrhus. 

DEIPHOBUS,  son  of  Priam,  and,  next  to  Hector,  the  bravest 
among  the  Trojans.  On  the  death  of  Paris,  he  married 
Helen,  and  was  slain  by  Menelaus  at  the  capture  of  Troy. 

GLAUCUS,  grandson  of  Bellerophon,  a  Lycian  ally  of  the 
Trojans,  slain  by  Ajax. 

HECTOR,  eldest  son  of  Priam,  the  bravest  of  the  Trojans, 
and  husband  of  Andromache.  He  slew  Patroclus,  and 
he  himself  fell  by  the  hand  of  Achilles. 

HECUBA,  daughter  of  Dymas,  or  of  Cisseus,  king  of  Thrace, 
and  wife  of  Priam.  After  the  fall  of  Troy,  she  was  taken 
by  the  Greeks  to  the  Thracian  Chersonesus,  where,  accord- 
ing to  Euripides,  her  daughter,  Polyxena,  who  had  been 
beloved  by  Achilles,  was  taken  from  her  by  f^lysses,  and 
sacrificed  by  Pyrrhus.  On  the  same  day,  Hecuba  also  be- 
held the  murdered  corpse  of  her  son,  Polydorus,  cast  on 
the  shore.  He  had  been  entrusted  to  the  care  of  Polym- 
nestor,  king  of  the  Chersonese,  by  whom  he  was  mur- 
dered, for  the  sake  of  the  riches  he  had  brought  with  him. 
Hecuba,  in  revenge,  enticed  Polymnestor  to  come  to  her, 
under  pretence  of  revealing  some  Trojan  treasure,  when 
she  blinded  him  and  slew  his  sons. 

HELENUS,  son  of  Priam,  gifted  with  prophecy ;  he  fell  to 
the  lot  of  Pyrrhus,  after  whose  death  he  married  Andro- 
mache. When  ^Eneas  came  to  Epirus,  Helenus  foretold 
his  destinies. 

MEMNON,  son  of  Tithonus  and  Aurora,  an  Ethiopian  prince, 
who  came  to  the  assistance  of  his  paternal  uncle,  Priam, 
and  was  slain  by  Achilles. 

PANDARUS,  a  Lycian  archer ;  slain  by  Sthenelus  or  Dio- 
medes. 

PARIS  or  ALEXANDER,  son  of  Priam,  vide  page  89. 

PRIAM,  vide  page  88. 


TROJAN    HEROES,    ETC.  97 

SARPEDON,  son  of  Zeus  and  Laodamia,  a  Lycian  prince; 
renowned  for  his  valour.  He  was  slain  by  Patroclus. 
Apollo,  by  order  of  Zeus,  cleansed  Sarpedon's  body  from 
blood  and  dust,  covered  it  with  ambrosia,  and  entrusted  it 
to  Death  and  Sleep  to  carry  into  Lycia  to  be  buiied. 

TROILUS,  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  or  of  Apollo ;  slain  by 
Achilles. 

Note.  —  After  their  death,  many  of  the  Grecian  and  Trojan  war- 
riors were  worshipped  as  heroes,  and  had  various  temples  erected  to 

tbe.'A. 


GEEEK  ANTIQUITIES. 


THE  INHABITANTS  OF  ATTICA  were  divided  into 
three  classes:  I.  ^oX^'r'a^,  or  freemen;  II.  Mttoixoi,  or  foreigners 
settled  in  the  country ;  III.  AovXot,  or  slaves. 

THE  INHABITANTS  OF  SPARTA  were  divided  into  two 
classes :  I.  STtap-rtotrat  and  H^pioixoi,  town  and  provincial  free- 
men ;  II.  Et^^rf  J,  slaves. 

MAGISTRATES. 

The  forn  of  government  at  Athens  was,  as  in  K\any  states, 
frequently  changed:  it  began  with  Monarchy,  diid,  having 
passed  through  a  Dynasty  (in  which  the  power  was  con- 
fined to  one  family)  and  Aristocracy,  ended  in  Demo- 
cracy. Theseus  may  be  called  the  first  king,  and  Codrus 
the  last,  after  whom  (b.c.  1045)  the  Athenians  elected  the 

Archons, 

who  were  the  chief  magistrates  at  Athens,  nine  in  number; 
their  power  was  originally  for  life,  but  was  afterwards  limited 
to  ten  years,  and  latterly  to  one.  The  names  and  offices  of 
these  magistrates  were  distinct:  the  President  was  styled 
6  "Apx'^v  or  £7twi/v^oj,  from  the  year  being  called  after,  and 
registered  in,  his  name;  the  second  was  called  jSacrafv^;  the 
third,  Tio'kiiia^x^ii  or  commander-in-chief;  and  the  remaining 
six,  OsaiJLoOitac,  or  legislators. 

The  functions  of  the  "Apx^^  were:  1.  To  provide  for  the 
celebration  of  the  feasts,  as  the  Dionysia,  &c. ;  2.  To  settle 
disputes  arising  between  neighbours  and  citizens,  and  to 
determine  all  causes  betAveen   married  people;   3.  To  take 

(98) 


MAGISTRATES.  90 

cai'e  of  orphans,  provide  them  tutors,  and  superintend  their 
estates. 

The  duties  of  the  Baort^vj  were :  1.  To  superintend  the  fes- 
tivals, and  especially  the  Eleusinia ;  2.  To  settle  all  disputes 
respecting  the  priesthood,  and  judge  those  accused  of  impiety. 

The  duties  of  the  Uo7^i[xa^xo^  were :  1.  To  celebrate  rites  in 
honour  of  Mars  and  Diana ;  2.  To  have  under  his  care  all 
foreigners  and  strangers,  and  settle  actions  brought  against 
them ;  3.  To  superintend  the  wars,  over  which  he  had  the 
chief  command,  and  thence  received  his  name. 

The  functions  of  the  ©sa^oOitaL  were  connected  with  the 
administration  of  justice,  such  as,  1.  Receiving  indictments, 
bringing  cases  to  trial,  and  appointing  the  day  of  sitting; 
2.  Annually  revising  the  code  of  laws ;  3.  Drawing  up  agree- 
ments with  foreign  states,  &c. ;  4.  Examining  the  magistrates, 
and  taking  the  votes  in  the  assemblies. 

THE  ARCIIONS  were  elected  by  lot,  and,  before  they 
were  admitted  to  office,  passed  in  examination  as  to  their 
family,  age,  past  conduct,  &c.,  and  took  oath  that  they  would 
observe  the  laws,  administer  justice,  and  accept  of  no  presents. 

Inferior  Magistrates.  —  1.  Ol  sv8sxa,  the  eleven,  elected 
one  from  each  of  the  ten  tribes ;  and,  to  complete  the  number, 
there  was  added  a  Tpaixfiafsv^,  or  registrar.  2.  ^vT^apxot,  who 
presided  over  the  tribes.  3.  A-/j,uap;to''>  the  chief  magistrates 
of  the  A'/Jaot,  or  boroughs  in  Attica.  4.  Arj^iapz^t'f  six  in  num- 
ber, assisted  by  thirty  inferiors ;  they  fined  those  absent  from 
the  Assembly,  took  the  votes  of  those  present,  and  kept  the 
public  registers.  5.  No^o^tVat,  1000  in  number;  they  inspected 
old  laws,  and,  if  found  useless,  caused  them  to  be  abolished 
by  an  act  of  the  people. 

The  Ephori. 

'  The  "E^opot,  or  '*  overseers,^'  were  the  chief  magistrates  at 
Sparta;  they  were  five  in  number,  and  elected  annually,  from 
and  by  the  people,  without  any  qualification  of  age  or  pro- 
perty. Though  at  first  only  judicial  officers,  in  time  their 
authority  became  so  great,  that  even  the  two  hereditary  kinga 
of  Sparta,  as  well  as  the  ma.gistrates,  were  prosecuted  or  sus- 


100  ASSEMBLIES. 

pended  at  their  discretion.     They  had  the  superintendenc© 

of  the  public  morals,  convened  the  public  assembly,  levied 
troops,  &c.,  &c.,  and  had  great  influence  in  the  most  import- 
ant matters.  Every  month  they  exchanged  an  oath  with  the 
kings,  promising  to  defend  the  royal  authority,  provided  it 
did  not  violate  the  laws.  The  tribunal  of  the  Ephori  was  the 
dp;^;^^©^  or  i^opdou,  a  Council  Hall  in  the  Forum. 


ASSEMBLIES. 

'Exx^f^ola,  THE  GENERAL  ASSEMBLY  of  the  citizens  at 
Athens,  in  which  they  met  to  discuss  matters  of  public  inte- 
rest. This  assembly  had  the  power  of  making  laws,  electing 
magistrates,  proclaiming  war,  &c. ;  the  place  of  meeting  was 
either  the  Agora  (dyopci)  or  Pnyx  (/twl),  in  later  times,  the 
theatre  of  Bacchus.  The  magistrates  who  presided  in  the 
Assembly  were :  1.  Prytanes  (rtpvrdvftj),  who  summoned  the 
people,  and  announced  the  subject  for  decision  ;  2.  Proedri 
(TtpofSpot),  who  occupied  the  front  seats ;  3.  irttctdtr^^,  or  Pre- 
sident, chosen  by  lot  from  the  Proedri.  The  usual  manner 
of  giving  votes  was  by  holding  up  the  hand,  called  ;^ftpoT'of^i'a, 
and  as  soon  as  the  voting  was  ended,  the  Proedri  examined 
the  suffrages,  and  pronounced  the  decree,  '^^^iana,  so  called 
from  the  '\'r^ot,  pebbles,  which,  together  with  beans  (xvancov), 
were  sometimes  used  in  voting. 

*H  j3ovT.'^  h  -^^^  n^vtaxoaiiov,  THE  SENATE  OF  THE  FIVE 
HUNDRED.  The  institution  of  this  body  is  attributed  to 
Solon,  in  whose  time  the  Council  consisted  of  only  400  mem- 
bers ;  but,  on  the  tribes  being  remodelled  by  Cleisthenes, 
B.C.  510,  the  Council  was  increased  to  500,  and  the  members 
were  divided  into  ten  sections  of  fifty  each,  and  were  called 
Prytanes  (rtpvrdvsi^) :  they  presided  in  the  Council,  as  well  as 
the  Assembly,  during  thirty-five  or  thirty-six  days,  so  as  to 
complete  the  lunar  year  of  354  days.  Each  tribe  presided  in 
turn,  and  the  period  of  office  was  called  a  Prytany  {Ttpvtavsia). 
The  members  of  tlie  Council  remained  in  office  for  a  year,  at 


JUDGES   AND   COURTS   OF   JUSTICE.  lOt 

the  end  of  which  they  were  obliged  to  give  an  account  of  their 
conduct  [svdvurj) ;  and  previous  to  entering  office,  they  sub- 
mitted to  the  Soxvfxaaia,  or  scrutiny  into  their  private  character, 
rfpouffta  was  the  name  given  to  the  Council  of  Elders, 
yipovts^,  or  Senate  at  Sparta ;  it  was  composed  of  the  two 
Kings  and  twenty-eight  citizens,  who  had  reached  at 
least  their  sixtieth  year.  They  were  elected  by  the  people, 
and  were  irresponsible.  The  functions  of  this  Council  were : 
1.  To  propose  measures  to  be  laid  before  the  Popular  Assem- 
bly ;  2.  To  discharge  the  highest  offices  of  government ;  3.  To 
sit  as  the  supreme  criminal  tribunal ;  and,  4.  To  watch  over 
the  public  morals. 


JUDGES  AND  COURTS  OF  JUSTICE. 

THE  COURT  OF  AREOPAGUS.  —  This  was  the  most 
ancient  and  venerable  seat  of  justice  in  Athens;  it  derived 
its  name  from  o  "Apstoj  ytayoj  (the  hill  of  Mars),  because,  it  is 
said.  Mars  was  the  first  criminal  tried.  The  court  was  com- 
posed of  ex-archons  who  had  discharged  their  office  un- 
blamably,  and  of  the  most  distinguished  citizens :  the  num- 
ber of  judges  varied  at  different  times.  They  were  termed^ 
dpftortayt'r'at,  and  took  cognizance  of  all  crimes,  vices,  and 
abuses,  such  as  robbery,  murder,  poisoning,  arson,  &c. ;  they 
overlooked  religious  matters,  and  punished  severely  for  im- 
piety and  contempt  of  holy  mysteries.  So  great  was  their 
power,  that  they  sometimes  even  annulled  the  decrees  of  the 
Popular  Assembly. 

THE  HELIASTS,  so  named  from  their  court,  ^Jxtoca,  were 
a  body  of  Judges  chosen  by  lot,  and  varied  in  number;  some- 
times the  r^Uaatal  were  6000  in  number.  They  took  cogni- 
zance of  affairs  of  the  greatest  importance,  but  were  not  per- 
mitted to  pass  sentence  until  they  had  taken  oath  to  decide 
according  to  the  decrees  of  the  people. 

THE  DlMTmM.     THE  FORTY.  — The  Bvaitrjtao  were 
inferior  judges  who  settled  private  disputes,  subject  to  an  , 
Bppeal  before  the  Heliasts.     They  were  chosen  yearly  from 
9*' 


102  PUNISHMENTS. 

the  ^vXai,  or  tribes,  and  were  required  to  be  fifty  or  sixty 
years  of  a^e.  The  Forty,  ot  r^ciaapdxovra,  were  also  inferior 
judges,  who  annually  took  a  circuit  through  the  Demi,  and 
decided  causes  where  the  matter  in  dispute  did  not  exceed  10 
drachm  93. 

COURT  OF  THE  EPHETJ^.  — The  i^sfac  were  judges, 
fifty-one  in  number,  selected  from  noble  families,  and  re- 
quired to  be  more  than  fifty  years  of  age.  Their  jurisdiction 
extended  to  cases  of  justifiable  and  unintentional  murder; 
when  judging  of  the  former,  they  sat  at  the  Delphinium — 
when  of  the  latter,  at  the  Palladium. 

AMPIIICTYONES  were  members  of  the  afi^tx'tvovCa,  which 
was  a  confederation  formed  for  mutual  security,  and  for  the 
protection  of  a  temple  at  which  the  members  assembled  to 
transact  business  and  celebrate  their  festivals.  The  most 
celebrated  was  the  Delphic  Amphictyonia,  originally  com- 
posed of  twelve  tribes,  whose  deputies  met  annually  at  Delphi 
in  the  spring,  and  at  Thermopylae  in  the  autumn.  The 
Council  itself  was  called  Pylaea,  TtvT^a. 


PUNISHMENTS. 

OSTRACISM  (dcrtpaxttfiuoj)  was  a  political  plan  for  removing 
from  the  country  for  ten  years  those  who  had  either  power  or 
popularity  enough  to  attempt  any  thing  against  the  State. 
The  word  is  derived  from  batpaxop,  a  tile,  as  it  was  on  this 
each  individual  wrote  the  name  of  the  person  he  wished  to 
be  ostracised.  The  assembly  was  held  in  the  Agora,  where 
each  voter  deposited  his  tile ;  but  no  decision  was  valid  unless 
the  number  of  votes  exceeded  6000.  If  this  number  were 
obtained,  the  ostracised  was  obliged  to  leave  the  city  within 
ten  days ;  but  in  his  absence  no  injury  was  done  to  the  house 
or  property  of  the  banished,  nor  was  any  disgrace  attached 
to  ostracism.  As  by  the  votes  of  the  tribes  a  man  was  ostra- 
cised, so  was  it  in  their  power  to  recall  him  before  ten  years 
had  elapsed,  if  they  chose. 


TEMPLES,    TRIE  ST  S,    AND    SACRIEIOES.       103 

'Att^ta  was  a  public  disgrace,  by  which  the  person  on 
whom  it  was  inflicted  was  deprived,  either  partially  or 
totally,  of  his  political  privileges. 

Aou^fta  (servitude),  by  which  a  criminal  was  reduced  to  the 
condition  of  a  slave. 

Xri-y/wara,  marks  impressed  with  a  hot  iron  on  the  foreheads 
or  hands  of  slaves  who  had  fled  from  their  masters,  or  of  cri- 
minals convicted  of  grievous  offences. 

2tijX>7,  a  pillar,  on  which  was  engraven  the  crimes  of  an 
offender. 

^sajxos,  the  punishment  of  imprisonment  or  chains.  The 
instruments  used  were:  1.  xv^u>v,  the  collar;  2.  ;to*»'t|,  the 
stocks ;  3.  cavC^y  a  piece  of  wood  to  which  criminals  were 
fastened ;  4.  'tpoxo^,  a  wheel  to  which  slaves  were  bound,  and 
beaten  with  stripes. 

^vyri,  banishment.  Persons  condemned  to  this  punishment 
lost  their  estates,  and  had  no  hope  of  returning  to  their  coun- 
try, unless  recalled  by  those  who  banished  them. 

©amroj,  capital  punishment.  This  was  performed  in  various 
ways:  1.  By  the  sword  (|t(J)o$)  ;  2.  By  a  rope  (/3po;toj)  ;  3.  By 
poison  (^dpixaxov)  ;  4,  By  stoning  [uOoiioUa) ;  5.  By  fire  {ytvp); 
G.  By  the  cross  (atavpo^),  &c.,  &c. 


TEMPLES,  PRIESTS,  AND  SACRIFICES. 

The  objects  employed  in  the  worship  of  the  gods  were 
either  temples  (t'ooj,  Woj),  consecrated  groves  or  en- 
closures {tmsvos),  or  altars  (i3w|io$).  The  temples  were 
generally  built  in  an  oblong  or  round  form,  and  adorned  with 
columns.  The  larger  temples  were  divided  into  three  parts  : 
1.  Tipovao^  or  TtpoSo^oj,  the  vestibule ;  2.  jtioj,  arixo^,  or  abvtov, 
the  temple  or  habitation  of  the  deity  whose  statue  it  con- 
tained ;  3.  oTtvadodotM)^  or  6rj6avp6^,  the  chamber  in  which  the 
treasures  of  the  temple  M^ere  kept. 

The  priests,  set  apart  for  the  service  of  certain  gods  or 
temples,  were   called  Upsv^,   clp>^r^p£?,   Ovosxoot :    divines   and 


104  ORACLES. 

wizards,  f^avtveg  or  d£ortp6no(,.  They  foretold  events  from  signs 
[tipwta,  arifiara),  such  as  thunder  and  lightning;  from  the 
song  and  flight  of  birds,  especially  of  prey  (oM/wro;to?tot, 
occovLorai,  6f |t6j  opvtj) ;  or  from  dreams,  ovEtporco'Kot. 

The  sacrifices  were  of  thi^ee  kinds.  I.  Occasionally 
human.  II.  Animal,  called  tfpstov,  victima,  hostia.  The 
victim  was  in  early  times  burnt  w^hole,  and  termed  holocaust; 
but  in  Homer's  time  the  thighs  (fjir^poi,  ft^pa)  were  inclosed  in 
fat  and  consumed,  from  which  omens  were  often  taken^.  As 
the  gods  were  supposed  to  delight  in  a  number  of  victims,  a 
hundred  bulls  {exarojj.jStj)  were  often  sacrificed.  The  word 
hecatomb  is  also  used  to  signify  any  large  sacrifice.  The 
animals  sacrificed  were  usually  oxen,  sheep,  and  goats,  with- 
out blemish  (rs^toj).  Previous  to  being  slain,  the  head  of 
the  victim  was  strewed  with  barley  and  salt  {ov'Koxv'tai, 
mola  salsa),  adorned  with  garlands,  and  a  tuft  of  hair  was 
cut  ofi"  from  the  forehead  as  a  beginning  (ajrcapxr^,  j^i^iiiiHice) 
of  the  sacrifices ;  the  animal  was  then  killed  by  drawing  back 
the  head  (a*/ap,jvto)  and  cutting  the  throat.  III.  Unbloody 
sacrifices.  These  were:  1.  Libations  (^otj3a^,  ghovBoI,  or 
xocu)  of  wine,  milk,  and  honey,  &c. ;  2.  Cakes  [rthavot,), 
dishes  of  fruit  (xs'pm),  &c.,  &c. 


ORACLES. 


The  word  oraculum  was  used  by  the  ancients  to  describe 
the  revelations  of  the  deities  to  men.  The  responses  were 
sometimes  given  in  verse,  or  written  on  tablets  ;  and  their 
meaning  was  always  ambiguous  and  obscure.  The  most 
celebrated  oracles  were:  I.  ORACLE  OF  ZEUS,  at  DODONA, 
the  most  ancient  in  Greece.,  founded  by  Pelasgians.  The 
oracle  was  given  from  lofty  oaks,  which  were  said  to  have 
human  voices  and  the  spirit  of  divination,  and  were  hence 
called  the  "prophesying  or  speaking  oaks."  With  regard  to 
this  fable,  the  fact  appears  to  be,  that  those  who  gave  the 
oracles  were  men,  and  when  consulted  mounted  an  oak,  and 


ORACLE  S.  105 

there  gave  the  replies.  The  decisions  of  the  oracle  were 
afterwards  given  by  two  or  three  old  women  (called  n^'hsia^E^). 
As  this  word  also  signifies  doves,  the  fable  originated  respect- 
ing the  oracles  being  delivered  by  doves.  The  usual  form  in 
which  the  oracles  Avere  given  at  Dodona  \vas  in  hexam^ater 
verse.  II.  ORACLE  OF  APOLLO,  at  DELPHI.  This  oracle, 
the  most  celebrated  of  antiquity,  Avas  situated  on  Mt.  Par- 
nassus, in  Phocis,  supposed  by  the  ancients  to  be  the  centre 
of  the  world.  The  oracle  Avas  at  first  called  Pytho;  the 
priestess  was  named  Pythia.  In  the  innermost  sanctuary 
the  statue  of  Apollo  w^as  placed,  and  on  an  nltar  before  it 
burnt  an  eternal  fire ;  in  the  centre  of  the  temple  Avas  a  small 
opening  in  the  ground,  from  which  the  most  intoxicating 
vapours  arose ;  over  this  chasm  the  Pythia  took  her  scat  on  a 
high  tripod  w^hen  the  oracle  was  to  be  consulted,  and  the  suf- 
focating fumes  caused  her  to  utter  sounds  which  were  taken 
down  by  the  Prophetes,  and  were  believed  to  contain  the 
revelations  of  Apollo.  The  Pythia  was  always  a  native  of 
Delphi,  not  allowed  to  marry ;  and  bound,  after  once  enter- 
ing, never  to  leave  the  service  of  the  god.  The  times  for  con- 
sultation, as  well  as  the  number  of  priestesses,  w^ere  from 
time  to  time  chauged,  to  meet  the  wants  of  those  who  flocked 
to  the  oracle.  Valuable  presents  were  required  to  be  made, 
and  hence  this  temple  exceeded  all  others  in  splendour, 
riches,  and  magnificence.  It  must,  however,  be  borne  in 
mind,  that  many  of  these  valuables  were  only  deposited  in 
the  temple  for  the  sake  of  safety. 

The  replies  w^ere  ahvays  returned  in  the  Greek  tongue,  and 
usually  in  hexameter  verse,  in  the  Ionic  dialect.  They  had 
at  all  times  a  leaning  in  favour  of  Doric  Greeks. 

The  chief  of  the  remaining  oracles  were  —  I.  Of  Zeus: 

1.  The  oracle  at  Olympia,  in  Elis;  2.  Zeus  Ammon,  in  Libya, 
N.AV.  of  Egypt.     IL  Of  Apollo:    1.  At  Abse,  in  Phocis; 

2.  At  Delos,  in  the  iEgean  Sea;  3.  Of  the  Branchidoe,  at 
Didyma,  in  the  territory  of  Miletus;  4.  At  Claros,  near  Colo- 
phon, in  Ionia.  III.  Of  Heroes:  1.  Oracle  of  Troplionius, 
at  Lebadea,  in  Boeotia ;  2.  Of  Amphiaraus,  near  Thebes,  and 
Qt  Oropus,  between  Boeotia  and  Attica. 


106  FESTIVALS. 


FESTIVALS. 

Festivals  were  instituted  —  1.  In  honour  of  the  gods,  Rr 
benefits  received  from  them  ;  2.  In  order  to  procure  some 
favour;  3.  In  memory  of  deceased  friends,  vrho  had  done  good 
Bervico  for  their  country  ;  4.  As  a  season  of  rest  to  labourers, 
that,  as  a  recompense,  some  days  of  ease  and  refreshment 
might  be  obtained.  The  chief  festivals  among  the  Greeks 
were : — 

'A6u)na,  in  honour  of  Venus  and  Adonis.  The  solemnity 
lasted  two  days ;  the  first  was  given  up  to  mourning  and 
lamentation,  the  second  to  mirth  and  joy. 

'Av6EatY;pia,  the  chief  of  the  Dionysian  festivals,  celebrated, 
in  honour  of  Bacchus,  for  three  da3\s ;  the  first  called  Ilt^otyta, 
second,  X6f$,  third,  Xvrpot. 

'Artaroypta,  celebrated  at  Athens,  and  lasted  three  days. 
The  first  called  Aoprtfta,  because  each  tribe  assembled  at  an 
entertainment;  second,  'Avdppvai^,  because  victims  were  offered 
to  Jupiter ;  third,  Koup?wrtj,  because  the  young  children  born 
that  year  were  then  taken  to  have  their  names  enrolled  in  the 
public  register. 

Aa(|)j'J7<|)opta,  celebrated  every  ninth  year  by  the  Boeotians, 
in  honour  of  Apollo ;  when  an  olive  bough,  adorned  with 
garlands,  was  carried  in  procession ;  on  the  top  of  the  bough 
was  a  globe,  the  emblem  of  the  sun  or  Apollo. 

Atovvcfta,  four  festivals  celebrated  in  honour  of  Dionysus  or 
Bacchus,  and  observed  at  Athens  with  great  splendour.  The 
wildest  mirth  abounded  at  the  various  Dionysiac  festivals ; 
some  wore  the  dress  of  satyrs,  others  comic  dresses,  others, 
dancing  ridiculously,  personated  madmen,  and  shouted  Evot 
Bdxx^y  <^  *laxxs,  'Iw  Bdxxe.  Choruses  were  sung  at  these  fes- 
tivals, called  Dithyrambs,  and  theatrical  representations  were 
also  given. 

^EXfvdvLa,  the  most  celebrated  and  mysterious  solemnity  in 
Greece  (sometimes  called,  by  way  of  eminence,  Mvatyipta)^ 
was  observed  every  fourth  year  at  Eleusis,  in  Attica.  The 
mysteries  were  divided  into  fitxjpa,  in  honour  of  Proserpine, 


FESTIVALS.  107 

and  fisydha,  in  honour  of  Ceres;  they  lasted  nme  days:  on 
the  first  day  the  worshippers  first  met  together ;  second  day, 
they  purified  themselves  by  washing  in  the  sea ;  third  day, 
they  sacrificed ;  fourth  day,  they  made  a  solemn  procession, 
in  which  the  xa'KdOvov,  or  holy  basket  of  Ceres,  was  carried ; 
fifth,  the  women  ran  about  with  torches  ;  sixth,  the  statue  of 
"laxxo^,  crowned  with  myrtle  and  bearing  a  torch,  was  carried 
from  Ceramicus  to  Eleusis  in  procession ;  seventh,  there  were 
sports ;  eighth,  the  lesser  mysteries  were  repeated,  and  those 
were  initiated  who  did  not  enjoy  that  privilege ;  on  the  ninth, 
and  last  day,  two  earthen  vessels  filled  Avith  wine  were  thrown 
down,  and  the  wine  spilt  was  off'ered  as  a  libation. 

©fCTAto^opta  {'Hhe  lawgiver"),  in  honour  of  Ceres;  celebrated 
by  the  Athenians  with  great  pomp  and  devotion ;  the  wor- 
shippers were  free-born  women,  assisted  by  a  priest  and  by 
certain  virgins,  kept  at  the  public  charge.  The  women  were 
dressed  in  white  for  four  or  five  days  before  the  festival,  and 
on  the  11th  of  the  month  Pyanepsion,  they  carried  the  books 
of  the  law  to  Eleusis,  where  the  festival  commenced,  and 
lasted,  three  days. 

UavaOrivaia,  an  Athenian  festival  in  honour  of  Minerva,  the 
protectress  of  Athens ;  it  was  instituted  by  Erichthonius, 
who  called  it  'A^*5mta ;  but  afterwards  revised  by  Theseus, 
who,  having  united  all  the  Athenians  into  one  body,  called 
the  festival  UavaOrivava.  There  were  two  solemnities  called 
IlavaBrivaia ;  jxiyd'ka,  the  greater,  celebrated  once  in  five  years, 
and  u-ixpa,  the  lesser,  celebrated  once  every  year.  The  chief 
difi'erence  between  the  two  festivals  was,  that  at  the  greater 
one,  which  was  attended  with  more  solemnity,  the  Peplus,  or 
garment  of  Minerva,  was  carried  in  procession  to  her  temple 
on  the  Acropolis.  The  solemnities,  games,  and  amusements 
of  the  Panathena3a  were:  rich  sacrifices,  foot,  horse,  and 
chariot-races,  gymnastic  and  musical  contests,  and  the  lam- 
padep7io7na,  or  race  with  torches ;  at  these  festivals  the  works 
of  Homer  and  other  Epic  poets  were  recited,  philosophers 
disputed,  and  the  people  indulged  in  a  variety  of  amuse- 
ments ;  the  chief  solemnity,  however,  was  the  procession  in 
which  the  greater  part  of  the  Attic  population  took  part. 


108  PUBLIC    GAMES. 

These  festivals  were  at  first  celebrated  for  one  day,  but  were 
afterwards  prolonged  for  several.  The  prizes  awarded  were 
vases,  containing  oil  from  the  sacred  olive-tree  of  Athena,  on 
the  Acropolis. 


PUBLIC   GAMES. 

These  were  instituted  in  honour  of  the  gods  or  of  deified 
heroes,  and  the  victors,  especially  in  the  Olympian  games, 
received  the  highest  honours.  On  their  return  home  they 
rode  in  a  triumphal  chariot  into  the  city,  a  portion  of  the 
wall  being  thrown  down  to  give  them  admittance ;  they  were 
honoured  with  the  first  places  at  all  shows  and  games,  were 
maintained  at  the  public  charge,  and  great  honour  descended 
to  their  relations. 

The  games  were  called  ^Aywvf  j,  and  the  principal  exercises 
used  in  them  were:  I.  Apojuoj,  Cursiis,  running;  II.  Aicrxoj, 
throwing  the  discus;  III.  'AX/ua,  Saltus,  leaping;  IV.  Ylvyjxvi, 
Pugilatus,  boxing;  V.  lld•kr^,  Luda,  wrestling.  These  five 
exercises  were  called  by  the  Greeks  yiivtaB%av,  Pentathlon, 
by  the  Romans,  Quinquertlum.  Some,  however,  instead  of 
rtvy^ri,  place  axovtiov,  jacidum,  throwing  the  spear. 

I.  Ap6/to5,  running ;  this  game  was  performed  in  a  space  of 
ground  called  atdbiov  vel  avXoj,  containing  125  paces.  There 
were  four  kinds  of  races :  1.  Gtdhiov ;  2.  bia.v'ko^,  running  twice 
over  the  stadium  ;  3.  hoUxos,  running  seven  times ;  4.  ort^V;;^, 
running  armed. 

II.  Al'opco^,  the  discus,  was  a  round  quoit  of  stone,  brass,  or 
iron ;  sometimes  a  heavy  mass  called  gq'Ko^  was  used  instead 
of  the  discus,  which  was  thrown  by  the  help  of  a  thong. 

III.  "A^iUa,  leaping;  this  exercise  was  sometimes  performed 
with  empty  hands,  and  sometimes  with  weights  of  lead  or 
stone,  called  dy.T'jJpfj,  which  were  carried  in  their  hands  or 
upon  the  head  and  shoulders. 

IV.  Uvy^jJ,  boxing ;  in  this  exercise  balls  of  stone  or  lead 
were  sometimes  held  in  the  hand,  and  the  cestus  was  used, 


PUBLIC    GAMES.  109 

which  was  the  name  given  to  the  bands  of  leather,  sometimes 
loaded  with  iron  and  lead,  and  tied  round  the  hands  to  liarden 
the  blcuTs. 

V.  Ild?,fj,  wrestling ;  this  was  the  most  ancient  of  the  exor- 
cises, and  was  performed  in  the  Xystus,  a  covered  portico ; 
in  which  two  naked  men  anointed  with  oil,  and  sprinkled 
with  dust,  folded  themselves  in  one  another's  arms,  and  en- 
deavoured to  throw  each  other  to  the  ground.  There  were 
two  kinds  of  wrestling ;  one  in  which  the  wrestlers  contended 
on  their  feet,  and  another  in  which  they  threw  themselves 
down,  and  contended  rolling  on  the  ground.  [The  Pancra- 
tium, TtayxpdtLov,  was  an  exercise  which  consisted  of  wrestling 
and  boxing.] 

The  four  solemn  games  in  Greece,  called  oywi/fj  tfpoi,  were : 
1.  The  Olympic  ;  II.  Pythian  ;  III.  Isthmian  ;  and  IV. 
Nemean. 

THE  OLYMPIC  GAMES.  —  These  were  celebrated  in 
honour  of  Zeus  Olympius,  and  were  held  at  Olympia,  a  town 
in  Elis,  whence  they  received  the  name  Olympian.  Their 
institution  is  assigned  to  Hercules  by  some,  but  it  is  impos- 
sible to  say  with  any  accuracy  who  was  the  real  founder. 
They  were  for  some  period  neglected,  until  the  time  of 
Iphitus,  who  re-instituted  the  solemnity ;  but  it  was  not  till 
B.  c.  776,  when  Coroebus  won  the  foot-race,  that  the  Olympiads 
were  employed  as  a  chronological  era.  The  games  were  cele- 
brated every  fifth  year,  in  the  Attic  month  Ilecatombaeon, 
and  continued  five  days,  from  the  11th  to  the  15th  inclusive, 
the  interval  of  four  years  between  each  celebration  of  the 
festival  being  called  an  Olympiad.  The  E leans  had  the 
management  of  the  games,  and  appointed  the  judges,  who 
were  chosen  by  lot  from  their  number.  Women  were  not 
allowed  to  be  present.  Those  who  intended  to  contend  were 
obliged  to  swear  that  they  were  freemen,  not  guilty  of  any 
sacrilegious  act,  and  had  spent  the  proper  period  (ten  months) 
in  preparatory  exercises.  The  wrestlers  were  chosen  b}^  lot, 
and  the  exercises,  in  addition  to  those  mentioned  in  the  last 
section,  were  horse  and  charioi^races,  in  which,  as  in  several 
of  the  other  exercises,  boys  contended.  There  were  also  con- 
10 


110  PUBLIC    GAMES 

tests  in  which  musicians,  poets,  and  artists,  strove  for 
the  victory. 

The  victors  in  these  games  were  rewarded  with  wTcaths  of 
wild  olive,  and  statues  in  the  grove  of  Altis ;  and  still  more 
substantially  on  their  return  to  their  own  cities,  as  mentioned 
before. 

THE  PYTHIAN  GAMES  were  celebrated  in  hon  ur  of 
Apollo,  at  Delphi,  anciently  called  Pytho,  whence  the  name 
Pythian.  The  common  tradition  is,  that  the  games  were  in- 
stituted by  Apollo  himself,  after  he  had  overcome  the  serpent 
Python.  They  were  at  first  celebrated  every  ninth  year 
(ivvasryjpl^) ;  but  afterwards  at  the  end  of  every  fourth  year 
(risvtastripi^) ,  and  comprehended  the  space  of  four  years,  com- 
mencing with  the  third  year  of  each  Olympiad.  The  games 
lasted  several  days,  and  the  exercises  were  the  same  as  those 
of  the  Olympic  games.  Some  say  that  the  solemnity  was  at 
first  a  musical  contention,  and  that  a  song  (to  which  a  dance 
was  performed)  consisting  of  five  parts  was  sung,  in  which 
Apollo's  contest  with  the  dragon  was  represented.  The  re- 
wards, when  there  was  only  a  musical  performance,  are  said 
to  have  been  gold  and  silver ;  but  when  gymnastic  exercises 
were  introduced,  garlands  of  laurel,  palm,  or  parsley,  were 
presented  to  the  victors. 

THE  NEMEAN  GAMES  were  celebrated  in  honour  of 
Zeus,  at  Nemea,  near  Cleonae,  in  Argolis,  every  third  year. 
The  institution  of  these  games  is  assigned  both  to  the  Seven 
against  Thebes,  as  well  as  to  Hercules,  after  he  had  slain  the 
Nemean  lion.  The  various  exercises  were  chariot  and  horse- 
racing,  and  the  pentathlon.  The  reward  of  the  victors  was 
at  first  a  chaplet  of  olive-branches,  but  afterwards  a  garland 
of  parsley-was  awarded. 

THE  ISTHMIAN  GAMES  were  so  called  from  the  Corin- 
thian Isthmus,  where  they  were  celebrated.  At  the  narrowest 
part  of  the  Isthmus  stood  a  temple  (Fanum  Neptuni),  near 
which  was  a  theatre  and  stadium  of  white  marble,  wh<3re  the 
games  took  place.  Some  say  they  were  instituted  in  honour 
of  Palaemon,  or  Melicertes,  son  of  Athamas,  king  of  Thebes ; 
others,  in  honour  of  Neptune.     The  games  took  place  every 


MILITARY    AFFAIRS.  Ill 

third  year,  and  the  exercises  were  the  same  as  those  of  tho 
other  sacred  festivals  ;  the  rewards  were  cliaplets  of  pine  ;  at 
one  time  ivy  was  used. 

The  Isthmian  games  were  held  in  great  veneration,  on  aO' 
count  of  the  religion  by  which  they  were  consecrated,  as  well 
as  on  account  of  their  antiquity. 


MILITARY    AFFAIRS. 
Divisions  of  the  Army. 

The  Grecian  armies  consisted  of  free  bodies  of  men,  whom 
the  laws  of  the  country  obliged,  when  arrived  at  a  certain 
age,  to  appear  in  arms:  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  the  Athenians 
were  appointed  to  guard  the  city ;  at  twenty,  they  were  sent 
to  foreign  wars  ;  at  sixty,  they  were  allowed  to  retire. 

The  army  was  composed  of  three  classes  of  soldiers:  1.  In- 
fantry, rtffot;  2.  Charioteers,  rjvioxot;  3.  Cavalry,  trtTtftj. 

The  foot  soldiers  were  divided  into,  1.  'OrcUtav,  who 
wore  heavy  armour,  and  fought  with  broad  shields  and  long 
spears ;  2.  •'FtW,  light-armed  men,  who  engaged  with  darts, 
arrows,  and  slings ;  3.  XlETufaarat,  who  were  armed  with  a 
small  shield  called  rciMy^. 

Arms. 

These  were  divided  into  tico  classes :  1.  Arms  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  body ;  and,  2.  Those  used  to  injure  an  enemy. 

I.  The  defensive  arms,  which  protected  the  body:  1. 
xpduo^,  xopuj,  xvvij^,  or  jiepixs^a'Kaia,  helmet,  made  of  brass  or 
of  the  skins  of  animals,  and  surmounted  by  a  crest  ("Ko^o^) ; 
2.  0copa|,  cuirass,  made  of  hemp  (twisted  into  cords,  and  woven 
close  together),  of  brass,  or  of  leather  covered  with  brass ;  3. 
xvYifxl^B^,  greaves,  for  the  front  of  the  legs,  made  of  brass  or 
other  metal ;  4.  dcjTttj,  a  round  buckler,  made  either  of  osiers 
twisted  together,  or  of  wood  covered  with  leather,  and  bound 
round  the  edge  with  metal;  in  the  centre  was  a  projection 
called  o^^aXo^  or  y.^co^^dxiovj  a  boss,  upon  which  a  spike  was 


112  MILITARY    AFFAIRS. 

sometimes  placed.  The  OvpEo^  was  an  oblong  shield  (corro 
sponding  to  the  Latin  scutum),  and  the  Ttixtrj  a  small  shield 
used  in  the  Greek  army,  by  a  body  of  men  named  from  using 
it  Ti^'KraotOA'. 

II.  The  offensive  arms:  1.  Byzo^  and  66pv,  the  spear  and 
lance,  usually  made  of  ash  ;  the  point,  alxi^yi,  was  of  metal ; 
2.  ^i^os,  the  sword,  suspended  by  a  belt  (t£%a^u>v)  from  the 
shoulder ;  3.  a^ivrj  et  jtsKexv^,  pole-axe ;  4.  to^ov,  the  bow,  said 
to  have  been  invented  by  Apollo,  who  communicated  his  in- 
vention to  the  Cretans,  who  became  first-rate  archers :  the 
arrows,  which  were  called  jSi'Krj,  biorol,  and  to^^vfj-ara,  were 
made  of  light  wood  and  pointed  with  metal ;  5.  axovttov,  the 
javelin,  of  which  there  were  various  kinds  ;  6.  a^evSovrj,  the 
sling,  which  was  commonly  used  by  the  light-armed  soldiers. 

THE  CHIEF  OFFICERS  OF  THE  ARMY  were,  1.  TtojJ- 
juap;to?  or  general  (vide  Magistrates) ;  2.  ot'parjyyoJ,  ten  in  num- 
ber, one  elected  from  each  tribe :  they  conducted  all  milito.ry 
afijiirs  at  home  and  abroad ;  3.  ra|tap;fc:ot,  ten  in  number, 
elected  by  the  tribes :  they  had  the  care  of  marshalling  the 
army,  directing  the  marches  and  encampments,  and  discharg- 
ing the  soldiers  convicted  of  misdemeanours ;  4.  irtrta^x^i,  two 
in  number:  they  commanded  the  cavalry;  5.  ^v'kix^x^i,  ten  in 
number,  elected  by  the  tribes,  subordinate  to  the  tW7tap;^ot: 
the  inferior  officers  received  their  names  from  the  number  of 
men  they  commanded.  Among  the  Lacedgemonians,  the 
supreme  command  was  vested  in  one  man  (usually  a  king  of 
Sparta),  who  was  attended  by  a  body-guard  of  horsemen, 
InTiiU,  300  in  number. 

THE  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  ARMY.— The  whole  body  was 
called  crrpana ;  the  van,  fxit^nov  vel  Ttpwroj  ^uyoj ;  the  wings, 
xf'pafa;  the  rear,  ovpa  vel  aaxo'to^  Ci^yoj.  Minor  divisions: 
rt&itiTtaj,  a  party  of  five  soldiers ;  T^o^o^,  a  party  of  twenty -four 
or  twenty-five,  sometimes  of  only  sixteen ;  raltj  vel  Ixatoi/- 
rapx^a,  a  company  of  100  or  120 ;  ^dxay^,  a  body  of  troops  in 
close  order,  whose  chief  weapon  was  a  long  spear.  The 
whole  army  of  the  Spartans  was  divided  into  juopat,  regiments, 
and  xoxQi,  companies,  the  number  of  men  each  contained  is 
vmccrta.  n. 


NAVAL    AFFAIRS.  113 


NAVAL   AFFAIRS. 


The  vessels  of  the  Greeks  may  be  divided  into  two  classes : 

I.  Naves  Onerarise,  o^.xd8e^,  ^optrrym,,  otpoyyvT^Vy  Tt^ta, 
ships  of  burden,  generally  made  of  a  bulky  form,  and  chiefly 
propelled  by  sails. 

II.  Naves  BellicaB,  'z'pt>;pftj,  tetpripn^,  7i£vtr;psi$  [triremes J 
quadriremes,  qidnquer ernes),  war-galleys,  propelled  chiefly  by 
oars,  and  distinguished  from  each  other  by  the  number  of 
banks  of  oars.  The  most  usual  number  of  banks  was  three, 
four,  or  five,  which  gradually  ascended  in  the  manner  of 
stairs.  The  most  common  ships  of  war  in  the  earlier  times 
were  long  vessels  [naves  longce)  called  rtevtyjxovtopoi,  with 
fifty  rowers,  twenty-five  on  each  side. 

The  principal  parts  of  the  vessel  were :  1.  tporct^  or  atslprj 
[carina),  the  keel;  2.  rtpwpa  or  (.dtcorcov  [prora),  the  prow;  3. 
^LiGoxoChi,  or  middle  part  of  the  ship  ;  4.  Ttpvixvyj  [puppis),  the 
stern ;  5.  Ta.ivpa.1  [latera),  the  sides  of  the  ship;  6.  xataGrpJcifia'ta, 
the  decks  or  hatches  ;  7.  tSioXta  [transtra),  the  benches  on 
which  the  rowers  sat:  the  upper  were  called  dpo,voi  (the  rowers 
Opavitm),  the  middle  fuya  (the  men  fuytT'at.),  the  lower  0a^a.aoj 
(the  rowers  OaXay.l'ta.i) -,  8.  \}i^o%ov  [rostrum)  or  beak:  this  con- 
sisted of  a  beam  pointed  with  brass,  and  was  used  for  the 
purpose  of  sinking  and  disabling  the  enemy's  vessels ;  9. 
ai/r^oj  [sentina),  the  hold;  10.  fpcc^^^l,  the  bulwark. 

The  tackling,  &c.,  used  in  navigation  were:  1.  lato^  [malus), 
the  mast;  2.  xipara,  xspcuao  [antennce),  the  yards;  3.  la'tCotf 
[velum),  the  sail ;  4.  ionda,  the  cordage,  comprising  (sxoivux 
[fanes),  the  cables,  nobss  [pedes),  the  ropes  attached  to  the 
lower  corners  of  the  square  sail,  and  vri^pai,  the  ropes  fastened 
to  the  two  ends  of  the  yards ;  5.  rCYihaXtov  [gubernaculam),  the 
rudder,  usually  two  large  oars,  placed  on  each  side  of  the 
stern ;  6.  ota|,  the  tiller  or  handle  of  the  oar ;  7.  ayxvpa,  the 
anchor;  8.  xwrtat  or  fpft'iuoj/  [remi),  the  oars:  their  blades  were 
called  TiXatav  [palniidm),  and  were  fastened  in  their  holes 
by  leather  thongs,  rpoTtol  [strophi) ;  9.  xovtoi  [confi),  punting 
poles. 

10  >^- 


114         PRIVATE    LIFE    OF    THE    GREEKS. 

The  bi'hfCv  was  a  mass  of  metal  suspended  from  the  yaids, 
which,  being  thrown  into  an  enemy's  ship,  by  its  weight 
either  shattered  or  sank  it. 

The  two  principal  manoeuvres  in  commencing  an  engage- 
ment Were  the  ^tixn'Kovi,  or  breaking  the  line,  and  /tfptrtXovj, 
or  outflanking  the  enemy. 

The  chief  naval  officers  were:  1.  atoT^px^^,  mvapx^^, 
or  Gtptitrjyos,  the  prcefedus  classis,  or  admiral ;  2.  «7tt(?ro^fi;$, 
the  vice-admiral ;  3.  f  pt^pap;toj,  or  captain  of  a  trireme ;  the 
captains  of  other  vessels  receiving  their  titles  from  the  num- 
ber of  ranks  of  rowers  their  vessels  contained. 

The  common  sailors  were  called  vavtai  (naiitce),  the  rowers 
ipitat,  the  soldiers  who  served  at  sea  iTttjJarot-  [classiarii 
milites),  marines ;  xv^ipvrjtrii  [guhernator),  the  helmsman  or 
pilot. 

On  landing,  the  ancients  used  to  haul  their  vessels  on 
shore  [^vi'Kunv,  subducere)  by  means  of  (oXxoi,  pulvini)  rollers. 
To  launch  them,  was  termed  xa9txx8iv  [deducere). 


PRIVATE  LIFE  OF  THE  GREEKS. 

Meals. 

There  were  four  daily  meals  taken  by  the  early  Greeks: 
1.  apKyfoi/  or  dxpaftffaa,  the  morning  meal  or  breakfast;  2. 
hilrcvov^  or  dinner ;  3.  ^^VKivov,  or  afternoon  meal ;  4.  hoprtov, 
supper.  The  Greeks  of  a  later  age  partook  of  three  meals : 
1.  axpdtiaixv,,  2.  aptcrroi-,  3.  ^siTtvov :  corresponding  to  breakfast, 
luncheon,  and  dinner.  It  was  customary  among  the  ancient 
Greeks  to  sit  at  meat;  but  after  luxury  prevailed  they  re- 
clined on  couches,  xUmi,  that  they  might  drink  at  greater 
ease.  Two  guests  usually  reclined  on  a  couch,  but  some- 
times a  greater  number,  who  were  then  placed  according  tc 
rank. 


private  life  of  the  greeks.       115 

Dress. 

The  Greeks  in  ancient  times  used  no  covering  for  the  head, 
but  afterwards  they  wore  hats  called  TttXot.  The  general 
name  for  clothing  was  «a&>}j.  The  inner  garment  of  men,  as 
well  as  of  women,  was  z^'^^^t  ^  tunic ;  but  women  of  wealth 
wore  a  robe  called  eyxvxT^v  %vtuiviov.  The  exterior  garments 
were :  1.  lixdtiov  or  4)apoj,  a  cloak  (Lat.  pallium) ;  2.  ;^Aacm,  a 
thicker  garment  for  cold  weather;  3.  ^ivoKri^  (Lat.  pcemila), 
a  round  garment  without  sleeves  ;  4.  i^sntpi^,  a  great  coat ;  5. 
tpii5uiv,  a  threadbare  coat  worn  by  philosophers  and  the  poor ; 
6.  cto^,  a  long  garment  reaching  to  the  heels ;  7.  ;^Xa|Ui;j,  a 
military  cloak.  On  the  feet  were  worn  :  1.  v7io^r^f^ara,  or  shoes 
bound  under  with  thongs ;  2.  xpr^nlSe^,  slippers.  KoOopvoc  were 
buskins,  or  boots  worn  by  tragedians. 

Funerals. 

The  Greeks  attached  great  importance  to  the  burial  of  the 
dead,  as  they  believed  the  souls  could  not  enter  the  Elj^sian 
fields  unless  their  bodies  were  buried ;  and  it  was  therefore 
looked  upon  as  a  grave  charge  on  the  character  of  a  man  to 
have  neglected  the  burial  of  his  relations.  The  following 
customs  were  connected  with  the  Greek  funeral. 

As  soon  as  any  one  had  expired :  1.  the  eyes  were  closed 
by  the  nearest  relative  ;  2.  the  mouth  was  shut ;  3;  the  face 
was  covered ;  4.  all  the  members  of  the  body  were  stretched 
out ;  5.  the  body  was  washed  and  anointed  with  oil ;  6. 
wrapped  in  a  handsome  garment,  and  decked  with  chaplets 
and  flowers;  7.  laid  out  (7fp(59f(jij)  on  a  couch  (zAtVjy),  with 
the  feet  towards  the  door ;  8.  a  small  coin  (6/3oAoj)  was  placed 
in  the  mouth,  as  Charon's  fare  for  carrying  the  soul  over  the 
infernal  river ;  and,  9.  a  small  cake  {fxE^itovtta)  was  also 
placed  by  the  side  of  the  corpse,  intended  to  appease  the  fury 
of  Cerberus.  Before  the  door  a  vessel  of  water  (dp8ai>Lov)  was 
placed,  that  those  about  the  corpse  might  purify  themselves 
by  washing. 

On  the  day  after  the  TipoSsav^,  or  the  third  day  after  death, 
the  corpse  was  carried  out  (« x^opa)  for  burial,  attended  by  the 


116  THE    GREEK    THEATRE. 

friends  and  neighbours  of  the  deceased.  It  Avas  either  buried 
{OcLTttEvi',  xaropvtfnv)  or  burnt  (xatftv)  on  piles  of  wood,  called 
Ttvpal :  Avhen  these  were  burnt  down,  the  remains  of  the  fire 
were  quenched  with  wine,  and  the  relatives  and  friends  col- 
lected the  bones,  which  were  placed,  together  with  the  ashes, 
in  urns,  either  made  of  gold,  silver,  wood,  stone,  or  clay. 

The  coipses  not  burnt  were  buried  in  coffins,  usually  out- 
side the  city.  It  was  usual  after  a  funeral  to  partake  of  a 
feast  at  the  house  of  the  nearest  relation  of  the  departed,  and 
on  the  third  day  to  offer  a  sacrifice  to  the  dead,  called  tpCta. 
Libations  (zoaC)  were  also  made  for  the  deceased  ;  and  the 
relatives  expressed  tlueir  sorrow  in  various  ways,  either  by 
cutting  off  a  portion  of  the  hair,  or  shaving  the  head,  sprin- 
kling themselves  with  ashes,  beating  their  breasts,  and  tear- 
ing their  flesh,  &c.,  &c. 

The  monuments  erected  over  the  graves  were  either  arjjxat, 
pillars  or  stone  tablets,  xiovs^,  columns,  mtSta  or  ^p^a,  small 
buildings  in  the  shape  of  temples,  and  rpdrtf^at,  square  stones; 
on  these  were  inscribed  the  name  of  the  deceased,  and  some 
account  of  his  r>ast  life. 


THE  GREEK  THEATRE  {diatpov). 

The  most  ancient  theatres  Avere  at  first  of  wood,  but  after- 
wards built  of  stone,  or  cut  in  the  rock.  The  form  was  semi- 
circular, and  the  rows  of  benches  for  the  spectators,  rising 
one  above  another,  were  arranged  in  front  of  the  stage,  which 
was  divided  into  the  Xoyslov  (jndpiium)  in  front,  where  the 
actors  spoke,  and  the  7ipoaxY:vt,ov  [proscenium)  behind,  at  the 
back  of  which  Avas  a  wall,  cxr^vrl  [scena),  usually  with  three 
doors,  for  the  entrance  of  the  actors;  in  front  of  the  axrjvri  the 
back-ground  scenes  were  placed,  and  concealed  by  a  curtain, 
avXat'at  [aulcea]^  till  the  play  commenced,  when  it  was  drawn 
down.  The  opx'h^''^?^  [orchestra)  or  pit  was  the  circular  space 
In  front  of  the  rows  of  seats  and  the  stage,  and  was  occupied 
by  the  chorus;  in  the  centre  of  this  space  stood  the  Ov^ieTiVj,  or 


THEGREEK    THEATRE.  117 

altar  of  Dionysus  [Bacchus),  on  the  top  of  which  the  leader 
of  the  chorus,  ;topoiy6j,  sometimes  stood,  and  behind  it  the 
prompter,  v7toi3o'K£v^  (monitor),  and  flute-player  were  usually 
placed.  The  ancient  theatres  were  of  vast  size,  capable  of 
containing  in  the  xol'Kov  (cavea)  many  thousand  spectators, 
who  sat  according  to  their  rank,  the  senators,  priests,  &c., 
occupying  the  front  seats.  The  buildings  were  open  to  the 
sky  [the  Romans  sometimes  used  an  awning],  and,  owing  to 
their  vast  size,  the  actors  wore  masks,  personce  (adapted  to 
their  characters),  with  mouth-pieces  to  aid  the  voice  ;  and 
tragic  actors  wore  cothurni,  or  thick-soled  buskins,  to  elevate 
the  figure.  The  ancients  used  in  their  theatres  various  stage 
machinery  to  give  effect  to  the  representations. 


EOMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


DIVISIONS   OF   THE   INHABITANTS   OF   THE 
ROMAN  EMPIRE. 

The  Roman  people  were  divided  by  Romulus  into  threo 
tribes  [tinbus],  Eamnes  or  Ramiienses,  Tltienses,  and  Luceres: 
these  tribes  were  again  divided  into  thirty  curice,  each  of 
which  had  its  curio,  or  president,  and  the  whole  body  had  a 
curio  maximus. 

The  inhabitants  of  Rome  Avere  at  first  divided  into  two 
ranks  [ordincs):  I.  Patricii,  and  II.  Plebei  —  these  were 
connected  together  as  Patroni  and  Clientes  ;  afterwards,  the 
Equites,  forming  a  kind  of  intermediate  order,  were  added. 
The  Patricii  appear  to  have  been  the  original  citizens,  and 
were  divided  into  curiae  and  gentes,  or  clans,  united  by  reli- 
gious ties  or  family  connexion.  They  were  entirely  separated 
from  the  Plebei,  no  connubium  or  marriage  being  permitted 
between  the  orders,  and  were  the  only  parties  eligible  to  the 
senate,  or  the  higher  offices  in  the  religious  and  political 
government  of  the  state. 

In  time,  however,  the  Plebeians  increased  in  importance 
by  the  admission  of  conquered  tribes  into  their  order,  so  that, 
from  the  time  of  Servius  Tullius,  they  took  part  in  the  comitia 
or  legal  assemblies,  and  ultimately  obtained  the  connubium 
and  equal  rights  with  the  Patricians.  The  Equites  were  at 
first  only  a  military  order,  300  in  number  {celeres),  and  insti- 
tuted by  Romulus.  This  number  was  increased  by  the  suc- 
cessive kings ;  the  Equites  had  a  horse  at  the  public  charge 
[equus  pnhlicus)  and  [ces  equestre)  a  sum  for  its  support. 
Latterly,  however,  the  name  Equites  was  extended  from  those 
who  had   horses  at  the  public  charge  to  all  those  having 

(US) 


THE    SENATE.  119 

horses  of  their  own,  and  qualified  by  their  property  to  act  as 
judices,  and  thus  the  military  character  of  the  original  order 
disappeared,  and  all  free-born  citizens  possessing  400,000 
sestertii  were  Equites,  or  of  the  Equestrian  order.  The  in- 
signia of  these  Knights  were  the  annitlus  aureus,  gold  ring, 
and  the  angustus  clavus,  a  narrow  band  of  purple  wrought  in 
the  cloth,  and  extending  from  each  shoulder  to  the  bottom  of 
the  tunica.  The  Equites  occupied  the  first  fourteen  benches 
at  the  theatres. 

When  the  ancient  difference  between  Patricians  and  Ple- 
beians had  disappeared,  then  arose  a  new  classification, 
Nobiles  and  Igno biles;  the  only  privilege  of  the  Nobiles 
was  \hQJus  imaginum,  an  ancient  custom  of  setting  up  in  the 
atria  or  courts  of  their  houses  waxen  busts  or  effigies  of  their 
ancestors.  These  Nobiles  were  again  divided  into  Optimates 
or  Conservatives,  and  Populares  or  Radicals. 

When  the  Roman  empire  enlarged  its  territories,  there 
arose  another  division,  Servi,  or  slaves,  Avho  became  such 
either  by  being  taken  in  war,  by  sale,  by  Avay  of  punishment, 
or  by  being  born  in  a  state  of  servitude.  They  received  a 
monthly  alloAvance,  but  could  not  obtain  property  without 
the  consent  of  their  masters.  Slaves  were  sold  at  Rome  by 
.auction,  and  became  either  the  property  of  private  indviduals 
or  of  the  state. 

The  state  of  slavery  was  terminated  by  Manuinlsslo,  which 
was  effected  either  by  entering  a  slave's  name  on  the  Censor's 
books  (censu),  or  by  certain  ceremonies  with  a  rod  (viiidida) 
before  the  Praetor,  or  by  will  [testamenio). 


THE    SENATE  {Senatus). 

The  Senate,  according  to  tradition,  was  instituted  by 
Romulus,  and  consisted  at  first  of  only  100  members  (sena- 
tores  or  patres),  chosen  from  the  Patricians.  This  number 
was  increased  to  200  when  the  Sabine  Titles  became  united 
to  the  Latin  Ramnes,  and  another  100  were  also  added  when 


120  THE    SENATE. 

the  Luceres,  consisting  chiefly  of  Etruscans,  were  incorpo- 
rated in  the  time  of  Tarq.  Priscus ;  these  new  Senators  were 
called  Patres  minorum  gentium,  in  distinction  to  the  old  Sena- 
tors, Patres  majorum  gentium.  The  vacancies  which  occurred 
in  the  Senate  after  the  abolition  of  the  monarchy  (b.c.  509) 
were  filled  up  by  Plebeians  of  Equestrian  rank,  who  were 
designated  Conscriptiy  and  hence  the  Senate  was  addressed 
as  Patres  (sc.  et)  Coyiscripti.  The  number  of  300  remained 
until  the  time  of  Sulla,  when  the  Senate  consisted  of  between 
five  and  six  hundred.  The  Senate  possessed  the  administra- 
tive authority,  in  such  matters  as  religious  worship,  taxation, 
levying  of  troops,  negotiations  with  foreign  states,  embassies, 
provincial  government,  &c.,  &c. 

The  sittings  of  the  Senate  were  either  regular  {senatus 
legitimus)  or  extraordinary  [senatus  indictus),  and  were  held 
between  sunrise  and  sunset.  When  the  members  tad  assem- 
bled, the  presiding  magistrate  announced  the  subject  [referre 
ad  Senatum),  and  called  on  each  member  to  state  his  opinions 
[rogare  scntcntias,  sententias  dicere) ;  this  he  delivered  either 
by  a  single  word  or  in  a  speech;  then  followed  the  voting 
(discessio,  pedihus  ire  in  sententiam  alicujus).  The  decree, 
when  passed  (Senatus  Consultum  vel  Decretum),  was  written 
down  and  placed  in  the  cerarium  or  treasury,  under  the  care 
of  the  Praetor. 

A  certain  number  of  Senators  were  required  to  be  present 
to  make  a  decree  valid,  and  those  absenting  themselves  with- 
out just  cause  were  fined.     For  Intercessio  vide  Tribuni. 

It  was  required  in  a  candidate  that  he  should  be  free-born, . 
and  possess  a  certain  amount  of  property ;  latterly,  800,000 
sestertii.  The  Senators  were  chosen  [legehantur)  by  the 
Kings,  by  the  Consuls,  and,  in  later  times,  by  the  Censors ; 
one  of  the  qualifications  necessary  was,  that  the  candidate 
should  have  fulfilled  the  duties  of  the  magistracy,  the  first 
degree  of  which  was  the  quasstorship.  The  insignia  of  the 
Senators  were  the  latus  clavus,  a  broad  l)and  of  purple,  ex- 
tending from  the  neck  down  the  centre  of  the  tunica,  and  the 
zalceus  lunatus,  a  high  shoe  adorned  with  a  small  crescent. 
The  Senators  had  also  certain  seats  at  the  public  shows. 


ASSEMBLIES.  121 

ASSEMBLIES   (Comifia). 

The  Comitia  were  the  legal  meetings  of  the  Roman  people, 
at  which  their  votes  were  taken  on  matters  connected  with 
the  government  of  the  State.  The  Comitia  could  only  be  held 
on  certain  days  {dies  comitiales)^  never  on  festivals;  and,  pre- 
vious to  meeting,  notice  was  given  [promulgari]  of  the  subject 
for  decision.  There  were  three  kinds  of  Comitia :  I.  CGmitia 
Curiata ;  II.  Comitia  Centuriata ;  III.  Comitia  Trihuta. 

I.  COMITIA  CURIATA  were  held,  in  a  part  of  the  Forum 
called  Comitium,  first  by  the  Kings,  and  afterwards  by  the 
Consuls  and  Prgetors.  Though  at  first  they  were  assemblies 
of  the  whole  people,  and  possessed  power  in  enacting  laws 
and  confirming  the  authority  of  the  Kings,  on  the  decline  of 
the  Patrician  power  they  lost  their  importance.  The  Comitia 
Calata  belonged  to  these  Comitia,  which  were  merely  meet- 
ings for  the  purpose  of  sanctioning  certain  proceedings,  in- 
augurating the  Flamines,  &c. 

II.  COMITIA  CENTURIATA  were  held,  extra  Pomcerium, 
in  the  Campus  Martins,  either  by  the  Consul  or  Prsetor.  In 
these  Comitia  the  Consuls,  Praetors,  and  Censors,  were  elected, 
laws  were  passed,  war  declared,  and  capital  offences  were 
tried.  The  Comitia  Centuriata  were  usually  assembled  by 
an  edict,  and  summoned  twenty-seven  days  before  the  period 
of  meeting ;  this  space  of  time  was  called  trimmdinum.  All 
those  who  had  the  right  of  Roman  citizens  might  be  present, 
and  voted  according  to  their  property.  On  the  day  of  meet- 
ing, the  auspices  were  consulted  by  the  presiding  magistrate 
and  the  augurs,  and  the  Comitia  were  opened  with  sacrifice 
and  prayer.  After  the  debate,  if  no  religious  obstacle  pre- 
vented, the  people  were  called  on  to  arrange  themselves  for 
foting.  The  Equites  voted  first,  and  the  six  classes  in  suc- 
cession. The  votes  were  at  first  viva  voce,  but  were  after- 
tvards  delivered  in  writing  by  means  of  a  tahella.  The 
centuries  which  were  to  vote  passed  over  bridges  into  an 
inclosed  space  [ovlle),  where  the  tabellce  were  supplied,  and 
thrown  by  the  voters  into  the  cistcB  or  ballot-boxes,  frcm 

11 


122       MAGISTRATES    AND    CHIEF   PUBLIC    OFFICERS 

which  they  were  taken  and  counted,  and  the  result  of  the 
voting  proclaimed  with  a  loud  voice. 

III.  COMITIA  TRIBUTA  were  held  both  intra  and  extra 
Pomoerium,  under  the  presidency  of  the  Tribunes  of  the 
People.  At  these  Comitia  the  inferior  magistrates  were 
chosen,  as  well  as  the  ^diles  Curules,  and  the  Tribunes  of 
the  People  after  b.c.  471 ;  and  after  b.c.  104  the  members  of 
the  Colleges  of  Priests.  Laws  were  pa3sed  at  these  Comitia 
called  Plebiscita,  which  at  first  only  bound  the  Plebeians ; 
but  after  b.  c.  306  they  concerned  the  whole  people.  The 
Patricians  seldom  attended,  as  the  votes  of  all  were  of  equal 
force. 


MAGISTRATES  AND  CHIEF  PUBLIC  OFFICERS. 

N.  B,  —  jfVie  dates  affixed  are  those  of  the  institution  of  tlie 
various  offices. 

iEDILES  PLEBIS,  b.c.  494,  two  functionaries  elected  from 
the  Plebei,  to  take  charge  of  the  public  buildings,  to  judge 
in  inferior  cases,  inspect  weights  and  measure,  and  prohibit 
unlawful  games. 

^DILES  CURULES,  b.c.  365,  two  in  number,  elected  at 
first  from  the  Patricii.  They  superintended  the  public  games, 
took  care  of  the  buildings,  repaired  the  temples,  theatres, 
baths,  &c.,  and  were  appointed  judges  in  all  cases  relating  to 
the  buying  and  selling  of  estates. 

iEDILES  CEREALES,  b.c.  45,  two  in  number,  elected 
from  the  Plebei.  They  inspected  the  public  stores  of  corn, 
all  commodities  exposed  in  the  markets,  and  punished  delin- 
quents in  5ill  eases  of  buying  and  selling.  The  office  was 
instituted  by  Julius  Csesar.  The  ^diles  had  various  officers 
under  them,  viz.,  prcecones  or  "  criers,''  scrihce  or  "  clerks/' 
and  viatores  or  "  attendants"  and  "  messengers." 

APPARITORES,  the  general  name  given  to  the  public 
officers  who  waited  on  the  magistrates,  such  as  the  Accensiy 
Lictores,  Scrihce,  Prceodnes,  Viatores,  &c. 


MAGISTRATES   AND    CHIEF   PUBLIC   OFFICERS.       128 

CENSORES,  B.C.  443,  two  officers  of  high  rank  and  autho- 
rity, elected  (at  first  from  among  the  Patricians)  for  a  lustrum, 
:r  space  of  five  years;  but  latterly  the  period  of  office  was 
only  for  eighteen  months.  The  duties  were  of  three  kinds : 
I.  To  take  an  exact  account  of  the  property  and  estates  of 
>wery  person  {census),  and  to  divide  the  people  into  their 
proper  classes  or  centuries ;  II.  To  superintend  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  finances  of  the  State,  and  meet  the  expenses 
attendant  on  the  erection  or  repairs  of  temples,  public  build- 
ings &c. ;  III.  To  punish  immorality  in  any  person :  the 
Senators  they  might  expel  from  the  Curia  or  Senate-house ; 
the  Knights  they  might  punish  by  depriving  them  of  the 
horse  allowed  them  at  the  public  charge ;  and  the  Commons 
they  might  remove  from  a  high  tribe  to  one  less  honourable, 
impose  on  them  a  fine,  or  disable  them  from  voting  in  the 
Assemblies. 

CONSOLES,  B.C.  509,  the  principal  annual  Roman  magis- 
trates, two  in  number.  The  office  was  established  on  the  ex- 
pulsion of  Tarquinius,  the  last  King  of  Rome.  At  the  first 
institution,  the  Consuls  were  elected  from  the  Patricians 
only;  but  afterwards,  B.C.  366,  the  Plebeians  obtained  the 
right  of  electing  one.  The  common  age  required  in  a  candi- 
date was  forty-three  years ;  the  time  of  election  was  about  the 
end  of  July  or  beginning  of  August,  they  were  then  called 
^Ulesignati"  until  entering  on  their  office,  the  period  of  un- 
dertaking which  varied  at  different  times.  At  first  their 
power  was  as  great  as  that  of  the  Kings,  and  their  badges  of 
office  nearly  the  same,  in  public  being  always  preceded  by 
twelve  lictors,  with  the  fasces.  They  wore  the  toga  prcetexta^ 
sat  on  the  curule  chair,  and  carried  an  ivory  sceptre.  Their 
chief  duties  were  presiding  in  the  Senate,  administering  jus- 
tice, levying  troops,  commanding  armies  and  provinces,  con- 
ducting the  Circensian  games,  &c.,  &c.  The  first  Consuls 
elected  were  L.  Junius  Brutus  and  L.  Tarquinius  Collatinus. 

CURATORES,  public  officers  of  various  kinds,  viz. :  Cura- 
iores  AnnoncB  (of  corn),  Curatores  Riparum  (of  the  navigation 
of  the  Tiber),  Curatores  Kalendarii  (of  books  containing  the 
names  of  persons  who  borrowed  public  money),   Curatores 


124      MAGISTRx\TES    AND    CHIEF   PUBLIC   OFFICERS. 

Ludorum  (of  the  public  games),  Curaiores  Operum  Puhlic(h 
rum  (of  public  works),  &c.,  &c. 

DICTATOR,  B.  c.  501,  a  magistrate  with  supreme  authority 
among  the  Romans ;  he  was  nominated  by  the  Consuls,  the 
auspices  being  taken  at  midnight.  The  Dictator  was  only 
elected  at  times  when  great  danger  threatened  the  State* 
His  period  of  office  was  six  months,  sometimes  even  less.  So 
great  was  the  power  of  this  officer,  that  he  might  proclaim 
war,  levy  forces,  and  lead  them  to  battle,  or  disband  them, 
without  any  consultation  with  the  Senate.  He  could  also 
punish  as  he  pleased,  and  there  was  no  appeal  from  him,  at 
least  until  later  times.  The  insignia  of  the  office  were  the 
sella  ciirulis  and  toga  jjrcetexta;  the  Dictator  was  also  pre- 
ceded by  twenty-four  lictors,  and  during  his  tenui-e  of  office 
all  other  magistrates  resigned  except  the  Tribuni  Plebis. 
On  his  election,  his  first  act  was  to  choose  a  "  Magister 
Equitum,"  or  Master  of  the  Horse,  who  always  attended  him. 
T.  Lartius  Flavus,  or  Rufus,  was  the  first  Dictator,  and  Sp. 
Cassius  Viscellinus  the  first  Magister  Equitum. 

PRiEFECTUS  URBI  (office  instituted  by  Romulus),  an 
officer  who  presided  in  the  city  during  the  absence  of  the 
Kings  or  Consuls.  The  office  was  latterly  merged  in  that  of 
Prcetor  Urhdnus. 

PRiETOR,  B.C.  3G6,  one  of  the  chief  magistrates  at  Rome, 
next  to  the  Consuls.  In  B.C.  246  a  Praetor  was  appointed, 
called  Peregrinus,  whose  duty  it  was  to  administer  justice 
in  matters  of  dispute  between  peregrini  (foreigners)  or  pere- 
grini  and  Roman  citizens.  The  other  Prastor  was  then  called 
Urban  us.  Sp.  Furius  Camillus  was  the  first  Praetor:  the 
Qumber  varied  at  different  times.  The  duty  of  the  Praetor 
was,  1.  to  administer  justice  (his  tribunal  was  called  ''  Prae- 
torium'^),  and,  2.  to  act  as  Consul  in  the  absence  of  that 
officer.  He  was  entitled  to  the  prcetexta,  the  sella  curulis, 
tico  lictors  when  at  Rome,  and  six  when  out.  The  exercise 
,)f  the  praetorian  authority  was  signified  by  the  words  ''do" 
(when  they  granted  licence  to  institute  a  trial),  "dico''  (when 
they  pronounced  sentence),  and  ''addico''  (when  they  gave 


MAGISTRATES   AND   CHIEF   PUBLIC   OFFICERS.      126 

the  50ods  of  a  debtor  to  a  creditor).  Prastors  were  also  sent 
to  govern  provinces  subject  to  the  Romans. 

PRO-CONSUL,  B.C.  327,  a  magistrate  sent  to  govern  a  pro- 
vince v\rith  Consular  power.  It  was  usual  for  Consuls,  on  the 
expiration  of  their  Consulship  at  Rome,  formally  to  obtain 
leave  of  the  people,  and  get  a  decree  of  the  Senate  for  per- 
mission to  govern  a  province.  The  command  lasted  one  year, 
at  the  end  of  which  the  Pro-Consul  made  up  his  accounts, 
left  them  in  writing  in  the  two  chief  cities  of  the  province, 
and  returned  to  Rome.  The  insignia  were  the  same  as  the 
Consuls,  but  only  six  lictors. 

PROCURATOR,  an  officer  of  the  Imperial  provinces,  who 
discharged  the  same  duties  as  the  Qugestors  in  other  pro- 
vinces. 

PRO-PR^TOR,  an  officer  who  had  all  the  authority  of  a 
Proetor.  The  name  was  assumed  by  those  who,  as  Praetors, 
had  continued  in  power  beyond  the  time  fixed. 

QU^STORES,  magistrates,  at  first  two  in  number;  in- 
creased B.  c.  421  to  four,  B.  c.  265  to  eight,  by  Sulla,  b.  c.  82, 
to  twenty,  by  Cassar  to  forty.  They  had  the  management  of 
the  public  treasury.  Two  Quaestors  accompanied  the  Consuls 
in  all  their  expeditions;  they  received  the  name  "Peregrin!,'' 
the  other  two  ''Urbani.''  When  the  number  was  augmented, 
certain  Quaestors  were  sent  to  collect  the  taxes  in  various  pro 
vinces.  No  person  was  eligible  to  this  office  under  the  age 
of  twenty-two  years. 

TRIE  UNI  PLEBIS,  b.c.  494,  certain  Roman  magistrates, 
elected  from  among  the  Commons  to  defend  their  liberties ; 
they  were  at  first  only  two  in  number,  afterwards  increased 
to  five,  and  lastly  to  ten.  Though  at  first  only  redressers  of 
public  wrongs,  they  afterwards  assumed  great  power.  They 
made  decrees,  and  carried  laws,  which  they  executed  on  ma- 
gistrates themselves,  ordering  even  Consuls  to  prison;  they 
possessed  the  right  of  "  intercession'  and  their  persons  were 
^' sacrosancii.'^  Nothing  could  be  concluded  without  their 
consent,  which  was  signified  by  affixing  the  letter  T  to  the 
decree.  They  could  prevent  the  passing  of  any  measure  by 
standing  up,  and  pronouncing  the  simple  word  '^veto"  (called 
11-^ 


126      JUDICIAL  PROCEEDINGS,  PUNISHMENTS,   ETC. 

intercessio).  They  kept  open  houses,  and  were  never  allowoj 
to  leave  the  city,  except  at  the  festival  "  Feriae  Lafcinae,'^  hel J 
on  the  Alban  Mount. 

TKIBUNI  MILITUM,  b.c.  445,  elected  with  Consular 
power.  They  were  three  in  number,  but  in  B.C.  405  in- 
creased to  six.  For  many  years  the  number  of  tiiese  tribune*- 
was  very  irregular.     The  office  was  abolished  v  c.  367. 


JUDICIAL  PROCEEDINGS,  PUNISH \^ENTS,  &o. 

The  judicial  proceedings  [judicia)  of  the  Romans  wer^ 
either  public  or  private.  The  judicia  privata,  or  civil  tria^ 
had  reference  to  the  rights  of  private  persons,  &<i ,  in  whioi^ 
at  first  the  Kings,  and  afterwards  the  Consuls  and  Praetora 
decided.  The  Judicia  publican  or  criminal  trials,  wi^re  origin^ 
ally  conducted  by  Qucesitores  (subject  to  the  Kings),  ana 
after  the  expulsion  of  the  kings  by  the  Consuls  and  Praetors. 
Capital  offenders  were  tried  before  the  Comitia  Centuriata, 
at  which  it  was  necessary  that  the  accuser  should  be  a 
magistrate. 

The  chief  punishments  among  the  Romans  were:  1.  mulcta 
or  damnum^  a  fine ;  2,  vincula,  bonds,  imprisonment ;  3.  ver- 
bera,  beating  or  scourging ;  4.  talio,  retaliation,  as  an  eye  for 
an  eye ;  5.  ignominia  or  infamia,  disgrace  inflicted  by  the 
Censors,  or  by  edict  of  the  Praetor ;  6.  exilium,  banishment ; 
7.  servitus,  slavery ;  8.  moj^s,  death,  either  by  decapitation, 
hanging,  throwing  from  the  Tarpeian  Rock,  strangling,  burn- 
ing, crucifying,  &c. 


PRIESTS. 


The  ministers  of  religion  among  the  Romans  were  divided 
into  two  orders :  I.  Those  appointed  to  the  common  service 
of  f.ll  the  gods ;  and,  II.  Those  devoted  to  the  service  of  par* 
ticular  deities.     Among  the  former  were  — 


PRIESTS.  127 

THE  PONTIFICES,  a  college  of  priests,  presided  over  by 
the  Pontifex  Maximus.  They  were  first  appointed  by  Numa. 
The  Collegium  consisted  of  four  members,  elected  from  the 
Patricians  until  B.C.  300,  when  an  equal  number  of  Plebeians 
were  admitted.  They  administered  the  ecclesiastical  laws, 
prescribed  the  ceremonial  of  any  new  public  or  private  wor- 
ship, prepared  the  forms  for  public  prayers  and  vows,  com- 
posed the  annals,  and  regulated  the  fasti,  interpreted  pro- 
digies, inaugurated  magistrates,  and  punished  persons  guilty 
of  offences  against  religion.  The  insignia  of  the  Pontifices 
were  the  toga  proetexta  and  a  woollen  cap,  plleiis.  The  Pon- 
tifex Maximus  chiefly  superintended  the  service  of  Vesta. 

THE  AUGURES  or  AUSPICES  were  originally  three  or 
four  in  number,  Patricians,  presided  over  by  a  Magisier  Cot- 
legii;  but  in  B.C.  300  five  Plebeians  were  added,  and  under 
Sulla  the  Augurs  were  increased  to  fifteen.  The  word  A  u  g  u  r 
or  Auspex  at  first  meant  a  diviner  by  birds  {aves)  ;  but  in 
time  the  name  was  applied  in  a  much  wider  sense.  The  art 
was  called  Augur^ium  or  Aiispicmm.  In  ancient  times  no 
transaction,  either  public  or  private,  took  place  without  con- 
sulting the  auspices,  which  were  divided  into  five  kinds : 
1.  Those  derived  from  the  sky  [ex  coelo),  particularly  from 
lightning  and  thunder;  2.  From  birds  [ex  avibus),  which 
were  either  oscmes,  which  gave  auguries  by  singing,  or 
allies,  hj  flying;  3.  From  the  feeding  of  chickens  (ex  tri- 
pudiis),  chiefly  war  auguries;  4.  From  four-footed  animals 
[ex  quadruped ibus)  ;  5.  Ex  diris  signis,  which  included  every 
other  kind  of  augury,  as  sneezing,  stumbling,  &c.  The 
Augurs,  when  about  taking  the  auspices,  stationed  them- 
selves on  some  open  ground,  and,  after  offering  sacrifices^ 
proceeded,  with  veiled  heads,  to  mark  out  with  the  lituus,  or 
curve'd'^wand,  a  particular  division,  templum,  in  the  heavens, 
in  which  they  intended  to  make  their  observations.  Tho 
spectio,  or  right  of  taking  the  auspices  of  the  State,  was  con« 
ducted  by  a  magistrate,  assisted  by  an  Augur,  who  inter- 
preted the  signs.  The  auspices  taken  by  the  magistrate? 
were  divided  into  auspicia  majora  and  minora,  the  forme* 
being  taken  by  the  Consuls  and  superior  magistrates,  the 


128  PRIESTS. 

latter  by  the  Qucestors  and  Curule  ^Ediles.  The  right  of  self- 
election,  co-optaiio,  was  possessed  by  the  Augurs  until  B.C.  1C3. 
The  insignia  of  the  order  were  the  trabea  and  lituus. 

THE  FETIALES  were  a  college  of  priests,  instituted  by 
Numa.  They  were  twenty  in  number,  and  their  president  was 
styled  Pater  Fatratus.  The  Fetiales  acted  as  the  guardians 
of  the  public  faith,  and  it  was  their  office,  when  disputes 
arose  with  foreign  states,  to  demand  restitution,  conclude 
treaties,  and  perform  the  rites  attendant  on  the  declaration 
of  war,  &c. 

THE  HARUSPICES  were  soothsayers,  who  interpreted  the 
will  of  the  gods  from  the  appearance  of  the  entrails  {exta)y 
whence  they  are  sometimes  called  Extispices.  The  art  was 
called  Haruspiclna,  and  much  taught  in  Etruria. 

THE  DECEMVIRI  SACRIS  FACIUNDIS  or  SACRO- 
RUM  were  the  priests  appointed  to  take  charge  of  the  three 
Sibylline  Books  (which  Tarquin  received  from  the  Sibyl), 
and  offer  the  sacrifices  prescribed  by  them.  At  first  they 
were  two  in  number,  then  ten  (five  Patrician  and  five  Ple- 
beian), and  afterwards  fifteen.  The  term  Decemviri  was  also 
applied  to  the  ten  officers  who  were  appointed  to  draw  up 
a  code  of  laws,  b.c.  451  (vide  Chronology). 

THE  CURIONES  were  priests  for  the  Curiae,  under  a  Curio 
Maximus. 

THE  REX  SACRIFICULUS  was  a  priest  appointed  after 
the  expulsion  of  the  Kings  to  superintend  the  religious  rites 
formerly  performed  by  them. 

The  priests  for  the  services  of  particular  deities. 

THE  FLAMINES  were  appointed  to  the  temple-service  of 
certain  gods  ;  they  were  fifteen  in  number,  the  chief  of  whom 
were  Flamen  Dialis,  the  priest  of  Jupiter ;  Flamen  Martialis, 
the  priest  of  Mars ;  Flamen  Quirinalis,  the  priest  of  Romulus. 
They  wore  a  purple  robe,  l<jena,  and  conical  cap,  apex. 

THE  VIRGINES  VESTALES  were  appointed  by  Numa 
to  feed  the  sacred  fire,  and  guard  the  relics  in  the  temple  of 
Vesta;  they  were  at  first  four  in  number,  two  more  were  sub- 
sequently added.  They  were  originally  chosen  by  the  Kings, 
afterwards  by  the  Pontifex  Maximus,  and  were  required  not 


PRAYERS,    SACRIFICES,    FESTIVALS,    ETC.  129 

to  be  under  six  nor  above  ten  years  of  age,  and  free  from 
bodily  defects.  The  period  of  service  lasted  thirty  years,  at 
the  end  of  vrliich  they  were  allowed  to  marry.  While  in  the 
service  of  the  goddess,  they  enjoyed  many  privileges,  such  as 
freedom  from  parental  control,  a  particular  seat  at  shows,  the 
right  of  liberating  any  criminal  whom  they  accidentally  met, 
the  attendance  of  a  lictor,  &c.  They  were  subject  to  the 
Pont  if  ex  Maxim  us,  who  severely  punished  them  for  letting 
out  the  sacred  fire,  and  for  unchastity  ordered  them  to  be 
buried  alive.  The  Vestals  were  clad  in  a  white  robe,  and 
their  heads  were  adorned  with  fillets  [infidai). 

THE  SALII  were  priests  of  Mars  Gradivus,  twelve  in 
number,  Patricians,  appointed  by  Numa  to  guard  the  Ancile, 
or  sacred  shield,  which  fell  from  heaven,  and  the  eleven 
others  of  similar  make  which  were  kept  in  the  temple  of 
Mars,  and  carried  in  procession,  with  dancing  and  singing, 
by  the  Salii,  annually  on  the  first  of  March. 

THE  LUPERCI  were  priests  of  Pan  ;  they  went  in  proces- 
sion, dressed  in  goat-skins,  on  the  Lupercalia  or  festivals  of 
Pan,  to  the  Palatine,  where  they  sacrificed  to  the  god. 

THE  GALLI  were  the  eunuch  priests  of  C^^bele,  whose 
worship  was  introduced  at  Rome  from  Phrygia,  b.  c.  204. 

THE  FRATEES  ARVALES  were  twelve  in  number,  who 
superintended  the  yearly  rural  sacrifice  of  purification. 


PRAYERS,  SACRIFICES,  FESTIVALS,  &c. 

The  worship  of  the  gods  consisted  of  prayers,  vows,  and 
sacrifices.  Public  prayers  were  offered  by  the  chief  magis- 
trates after  a  form  prepared  and  recited  by  the  priests ;  these 
prayers  were  often  accompanied  by  vows  [vota).  It  was  usual 
for  persons  who  had  been  in  great  danger  during  a  vovage, 
on  landing,  to  hang  up  their  clothes  in  the  temple  of  Nep- 
tune, with  a  tablet  [votiva  tabula),  on  which  was  depicted  a 
representation  of  the  event. 

Sacrifices  [sacrificia)  formed  the  chief  part  of  the  public 


130  PRAYERS,    SACRIFICES,    FESTIVALS,    ETC. 

worship  of  the  Romans,  whose  customs  were  in  this  matter 
much  the  same  as  those  of  the  Greeks.  The  victim  [hosUa, 
victima),  without  blemish  before  being  sacrificed,  was  deco- 
rated with  garlands  (vittce,  irifulce),  and  sometimes  its  horns 
were  gilded  ;  it  w^as  then  led  to  the  altar  by  the  popa,  or 
attendant,  w^here  the  animal's  head  was  sprinkled  wdth  roast 
barley  meal,  mixed  wdth  salt  [mola  salsa),  and  afterwards 
slaughtered,  and  its  entrails  (exta)  inspected  by  the  Jiarus- 
pices,  the  better  parts  strewed  with  meal,  wine,  and  incense, 
and  burnt  on  the  altar,  and  a  solemn  banquet  prepared.  The 
lustratio  was  a  purification  in  which  the  victim  was  lead 
round  the  object  intended  to  be  purified.  (For  libaiio,  vide 
page  104.)  The  most  common  sacrifices  at  Rome  were  the 
suovetaurilia,  consisting  of  a  pig,  a  sheep,  and  an  ox. 

The  places  dedicated  to  the  worship  of  the  Romans  were 
either  buildings,  or  sacred  spots  consecrated  by  the  Augurs : 
e.  g.  templa,  cedes  sacroe,  fana,  deluhra,  sacella,  cedicxdce;  luci. 

Days  among  the  Romans  were  either  devoted  to  religious 
observances,  dies  festi,  or  to  business,  dies  profesti.  The 
ferice  or  festivals,  in  which  the  Romans  ceased  from  political 
transactions,  law-suits,  &c.,  were  divided  into  publicce  and 
privatce ;  the  former  being  again  divided  into  ferice  stativos 
or  immoveable,  ferice  conceptivce  or  moveable,  and  ferice  im- 
perativce,  fasts  held  by  command  of  the  magistrate:  the  ferice 
privatce  were  kept  by  families  in  commemoration  of  birth- 
days, &c. 

The  chief  ferice  stativce  were  the  Lupercalia  to  Pan,  15th 
of  February ;  Matronalia,  celebrated  by  matrons  for  various 
causes,  1st  of  March ;  Megalesia,  or  feast  of  Cyhele,  mother  of 
the  gods,  4th  of  April ;  Parilia  or  Falilia,  in  honour  of  Pales, 
deity  of  orchards,  21st  of  April ;  feast  of  the  Bona  Dea^ 
attended  by  the  vestal  virgins  and  women  only,  1st  of  May ; 
feast  of  Castor  and  Pollux,  with  the  Transvectio  Equitum,  an 
annual  procession  of  the  Equites  or  Knights,  15th  of  July ; 
Saturnalia,  feasts  of  Saturn,  the  most  celebrated  of  the  fes- 
tivals, when  all  orders  devoted  themselves  to  mirth  and  revel- 
ling ;  the  feast  commenced  on  the  19th,  afterwards  17th,  of 
December,  and  lasted  several  days. 


GAMES.  181 

GAMES. 

The  games  of  the  Romans  were  either  stated  [stati),  and 
votive,  or  extraordinary,  which  were  celebrated  in  con- 
sequence of  vows,  or  at  the  funerals  of  private  persons.  The 
games  were  of  three  kinds:  I.  Ludi  Circenses;  II.  Gla- 
diator ii,  shows  of  Gladiators;  III.  Scenic i,  dramatic  en- 
tertainments. 

The  Ludi  Circenses,  so  called  from  being  celebrated  in 
the  circus  (maximus),  were  of  Etruscan  origin.  They  com- 
menced  with  a  procession,  and  consisted  of:  I.  Cursits,  chariot 
or  horse-races ;  2.  Ludus  Trojce,  a  sham  fight  or  tournament 
on  horseback;  3.  Pugna  cquestris  et  pedestris,  a  representa- 
tion of  a  battle ;  4.  Certamen  gi/mnicum,  consisting  of  the 
TthtaOXop  of  the  Greeks  (Lat.  quinquertium) ;  viz.  saltus,  leap- 
ing ;  cursus,  running ;  lucta,  wrestling ;  pugilatus,  boxing ; 
discus,  throwing  the  quoit  or  discus ;  and  the  pancratium ; 
5.  Venatio,  hunting,  i.  e.  the  combats  of  wild  beasts,  either 
with  one  another  or  with  men  hired  for  the  purpose,  or  with 
condemned  criminals  or  captives ;  6.  Naumachia,  a  represen- 
tation of  a  naval  engagement ;  the  Naumachiee  were  either 
exhibited  in  the  amphitheatres  (sufficient  water  being  brought 
in  to  float  the  ships),  or  in  buildings  erected  for  the  purpose. 

Gladiatorii.  The  shows  of  gladiators  were  also  of  Etrus- 
can origin,  and  were  first  introduced  at  Rome  in  the  Forum 
Boarium,  B.C.  264,  by  order  of  M.  and  Decimus  Brutus, 
at  the  funeral  of  their  father.  Though  at  first  only  confined 
to  funerals,  the  shows  of  gladiators  afterwards  took  place  at 
public  festivals,  and  combats  were  exhibited  by  the  chief 
Roman  magistrates  and  emperors  till  the  time  of  Constantine, 
"by  whom  they  were  abolished.  The  combatants  were  at  first 
either  slaves,  captives,  or  condemned  criminals,  and  some- 
times free  men,  who  hired  themselves  out;  but  during  the 
empire,  even  Senators  and  E quite s  fought  in  the  a,rena. 

The  gladiators  were  instructed  by  a  lanisia  in  the  use  of 
the  various  weapons,  and  previous  to  the  actual  combats  a 
prcelusio  or  sham  battle  took  place,  when  the  gladiators  were 
matched  by  pairs,  and  used  blunt  wooden  swords  {7^udes), 
which  wore  also  given  them  on  their  discharge. 


132  GAMES. 

The  several  kinds  of  gladiators  were :  1.  Andabaice,  who 
wore  helmets  which  covered  the  face,  and  consequently  they 
fought  blind-folded ;  2.  Catervarii,  who  fought  in  companies  ; 
3.  Essedarii,  who  fought  from  chariots ;  4.  Mirmillones  (so 
named  from  having  the  image  of  a  fish  (/uop^uvpoj)  on  their 
helmets),  usually  matched  with  retiarHi  or  Thracians  ;  5.  Re- 
iiarii,  who  fought  with  a  ''fuscina,^^  or  three-pointed  lance 
(tridens),  and  a  net  (rete),  with  which  they  endeavoured  to 
entangle  their  adversaries,  and  despatch  them  with  the  tri- 
dent ;  6.  Samnites,  who  used  the  oblong  shield  [scutum)  and 
the  usual  armour  of  the  Samnites ;  7.  ThraceSy  armed  like 
the  Thracians,  with  around  shield  and  short  dagger  [sica). 
When  a  gladiator  was  wounded,  the  people  shouted  hahet, 
"  he  has  got  it,''  and  the  vanquished  one  lowered  his  arms  in 
token  of  submission ;  but  his  fate  depended  on  the  people, 
who  pressed  down  their  thumbs  (pollicem  premere),  if  they 
wished  his  life  to  be  spared,  and  turned  them  up  [veriere)  as 
a  signal  for  death.  The  combats  usually  took  place  in  the 
Amphitheatrum,  a  large  building,  in  form  a  complete 
oval,  the  centre  space  of  which  was  called  the  arena^  from 
being  sprinkled  with  sand ;  the  most  celebrated  was  the 
Amph.  Flavium  or  Coliseum,  built  by  Vespasian  and 
Titus,  which  had  raised  seats,  capable  of  containing  87,000 
spectators. 

The  Scenici,  or  stage  plays,  were  introduced  from  Etruria, 
about  B.C.  364.  They  were  performed  in  theatres  [theatra), 
large  semicircular  buildings,  fitted  up  with  benches  or  seats 
{cunei),  which  rose  one  above  another ;  the  fourteen  foremost 
rows  next  the  stage  being  occupied  by  the  Equites ;  the  whole 
of  the  space  for  the  public  was  called  cavea.  The  orchestra 
was  a  semicircular  space  in  front  of  the  spectators,  assigned 
to  the  Senators,  foreign  ambassadors,  &c.  The  Scenici 
were  of  three  kinds:  Comoedia,  Comedy;  Tragcediaj  Tragedy; 
MimuSj  Pantomime.  The  dramatic  pieces  were  purchased 
by  the  ^diles,  and  the  recitation  Avas  accompanied  by  flutes, 
and  the  actors  usually  wore  masks,  pcrsonce.  Tide  Greek 
Theatre  (page  116),  to  wliich,  on  the  whole,  the  Roman  cor- 
responded. 


MILITARY    AFFAIRS.  133 

MILITARY   AFFAIRS. 

Conscription  and  Period  of  Service,  &c. 

The  Romans  were  a  nation  of  warriors,  and  thus  from  the 
earliest  period  they  had  an  organized  military  establishment. 
In  the  early  times,  the  army  consisted  of  3000  infantry  and 
three  centuries  of  cavalry  [Equites).  When  Servius  Tullius 
divided  the  people,  he  formed  the  better  class  of  citizens  into 
eighteen  centuries  of  Equites.  The  infantry  then  consisted 
of  five  classes,  and  were  divided  into  seniores,  for  the  defence 
of  the  city,  and  juniores,  for  service  abroad. 

Every  citizen  was  compelled  to  enlist  when  the  public  ser- 
vice required:  the  age  of  enlisting  was  from  seventeen  to  forty- 
six,  and  the  time  of  service  twenty  campaigns  of  one  year  for 
the  infantry,  and  ten  for  the  cavalry ;  these  services  were 
looked  upon  as  honourable,  and  ten  years  of  either  infantry 
ir  cavalry  service  was  a  qualification  for  the  magistracy. 
At  first,  none  of  the  poorest  citizens  [proletarii)  or  freedmen 
performed  military  service,  except  on  urgent  occasions.  Ma- 
rius,  B.C.  107,  first  chose  soldiers  without  reference  to  pro- 
perty, in  still  later  times  citizens  were  exempted  from  com- 
pulsory service,  and  under  the  Emperors  the  army  consisted 
chiefly  of  foreigners.  In  the  times  of  the  Republic,  four 
legions  of  soldiers  were  raised,  two  for  each  Consul;  but 
this  number  gradually  increased,  and  was  greatly  augmented 
by  allies. 

The  Consuls,  at  the  yearly  conscription,  required  all 
those  who  had  reached  the  military  age  to  appear  on  the 
Campus  Martins,  or  at  the  Capitolium,  for  the  purpose  of  en- 
rolling their  names.  The  selection  was  made  by  the  Military 
Tribunes,  after  which  an  oath  [sacr amentum)  was  adminis- 
tered. Persons  sufiering  from  bodily  infirmity  were  exempted 
from  servicej  but  soldiers  conscribed  on  a  sudden  emergency 
[tumultuarii  or  subitarii)  were  allowed  no  exemption.  Soldiers 
who  had  served  their  time  were  called  emeriti,  and  received  a 
discharge,  missio,  but  sometimes  were  again  called  out  or 

n 


184  ^I  I  L  I  T  A  R  Y    AFFAIRS. 

induced  to  re-enlist,  and  Avere  then  termed  evocati.  The  pay 
of  the  common  soldiers  was  J  denarius  a  day ;  the  centurion 
received  double  this  sum ;  the  Equites  were  allowed  a  horse 
at  the  public  expense,  and  an  annual  sum  for  its  keep  (Vide 
page  118). 

Divisions  of  the  Army. 

After  the  levy  was  completed,  and  the  oath  administered, 
the  troops  were  formed  into  legions ;  each  legio  was  divided 
into  ten  cohortes,  each  cohort  into  three  manipuli,  and  each 
manipulus  into  two  centurice.  To  each  legion  belonged  a 
body  of  cavalry  (300  in  number),  divided  into  ten  turmce  or 
troops,  each  turma  containing  three  dccurlce.  The  number 
of  men  in  a  legion  varied  at  different  times,  generally  from 
4000  to  6000  infantry,  and  from  300  to  400  cavalry.  The 
soldiers  were  divided  into  the  hastati  (forming  the  first  line, 
so  called  from  bearing  the  hasta,  a  long  spear,  which  was 
afterwards  laid  aside,  and  the  pilum  used  instead),  the  prin- 
cipes  (men  of  middle  age  in  the  vigour  of  life,  who  formed 
'  the  second  line,  originally  the  first),  the  triarii,  old  soldiers, 
who  formed  the  third  line;  they  were  also  called  pilani, 
from  the  pilum  or  javelin  they  used.  The  other  kinds  of 
soldiers  were :  1.  Veliies,  swift  and  light-armed  soldiers,  em- 
ployed in  outpost  duty  when  the  Romans  were  encamped ; 
2.  Funditores,  slingers ;  3.  Sagittarii,  archers ;  4.  Ferentarii 
and  Borarii,  light-armed  soldiers. 

Arms. 

The  defensive  arms  were :  1.  scutum,  an  oblong  shield, 
made  of  wicker-work  or  wood,  joined  together  with  iron  and 
covered  with  hide,  and  having  an  iron  boss  in  the  centre; 
2.  clipeiis,  a  large  shield  of  a  circular  form;  3.  galea,  the 
helmet,  made  of  brass  or  iron,  and  surmounted  by  a  crista  or 
crest ;  4.  lorlca,  a  coat  of  mail  or  cuirass,  generally  made  of 
leather,  covered  with  plates  of  iron  or  of  chain ;  5.  thorax,  a 
bfeast-plate  (more  in  use  than  the  lorica) ;  6.  ocrece,  the 
greaves  for  the  legs,  made  of  metal  lined  with  leather. 


MILITARY    AFFAIRS.  135 

The  offensive  arms  were:  1.  gladius  or  ensis,  a  sword,  gene- 
rally straight,  with  a  two-edged  blade;  2.  pila,  javelins  pointed 
with  iron  ;  3.  liastce,  long  spears. 

The  light-armed  soldiers,  velites,  mentioned  above,  used  a 
small  shield  called  parma. 

Officers. 

The  command  {i7nperlum)  of  the  array  was  intrusted  to 
the  chief  magistrates ;  first  to  the  Kings,  and  afterwards  to 
the  Consuls,  Praetors,  and  Dictators.  The  principal  officers 
under  these  were :  1.  Legati,  nominated  by  the  Consul  or 
Dictator,  and  approved  of  by  the  Senate.  2.  Trihuni  Militiun, 
elected  by  the  Consul  or  Dictator ;  latterly,  b.  c.  362,  partly 
by  the  people  ;  to  each  legio  there  were  at  first  three,  but 
afterwards  six  Tribunes,  who  Avere  relieved  every  two  months. 
3.  Centuriones,  chosen  by  the  Tribunes  according  to  merit 
from  the  common  soldiers ;  each  maniple  had  two,  a  prior 
and  posterior.  The  Centurions  had  under  them  Optiones,  or 
Succentiiriones,  and  Signiferi,  or  standard-bearers. 

The  troops  of  allies  [auxilia)  were  commanded  by  Free- 
fecti. 

The  cavalry  was  commanded  by  a  Prcefectus  alee,  and  the 
turmce  had  each  three  Decitriones  (or  officers  often),  who  had 
under  them  Optiones  or  deputies. 

The  military  cloak  of  the  General  was  cslled  paludamentum 
or  chlamijs,  and  was  of  a  scarlet  colour  (the  latter  was  also  a 
travelling-dress).  The  sagiim  was  the  common  military  cloak 
of  the  soldiers. 

The  Romans,  when  on  a  march,  every  night  constructed 
an  encampment,  which  they  fortified  with  a  palisade  [vallum), 
trench  (fossa),  and  mound  [agger).  The  camp  was  generally 
a  parallelogram,  and  had  four  gates,  prcetoria,  decumana, 
principalis  dextra,  and  sinistra. 

The  signals  were  given  by  wind-instruments :  huccina  (a 
trumpet,  bent  almost  round),  cornn  (a  horn  similar  to  the 
huccina),  tuha  (a  straight  trumpet)  in  the  infantry,  and  litaus 
^the  clarion)  in  the  cavalry. 


136     MILITARY   REWARDS   AND   PUNISHMENTS,   ETC, 

The  Order  of  Battle. 

The  army  was  usually  drawn  up  in  three  lines,  liastattt 
principes,  and  triarii,  placed  at  certain  distances,  and  divided 
into  maniples  or  cohorts,  the  open  spaces  being  occupied  by 
(velUes)  light  troops.     The  legions  were  in  the  centre  (media 
acies),  and  the  cavalry  and  allies  formed  the  wings  [cornua' 
Sometimes  a  different  order  of  battle  was  necessary,  and 
troops  were  formed  into  the  cunens  or  wedge,  the  orhL 
glohus,  a  round  body,  and  the  testudo,  a  compact  body  ei 
ployed  in  sieges,  the  whole  of  the  men  being  covered  with 
their  shields,  as  with  a  roof. 

The  standards,  signa,  gave  the  signals  for  the  movements 
of  the  army ;  each  maniple  had  one,  the  ancient  signal  of 
which  was  a  handful  of  hay  on  a  pole.  The  standard  of  the 
legio  was  a  spear,  hasta,  with  the  figure  of  an  animal  upon  it: 
from  the  consulship  of  Marius,  b.  c.  104,  a  silver  eagle  with 
extended  wings  became  the  standard  of  the  legio. 

The  engines  used  in  storming  towns,  &c.,  were :  1.  Aries, 
a  battering  ram,  consisting  of  a  beam,  to  one  end  gf  which 
was  fixed  a  mass  of  iron,  in  the  form  of  a  ram's  head ;  2.  Hal- 
Usta,  an  engine  for  projecting  stones,  &c. ;  3.  Catapulta,  used 
for  throwing  darts ;  4.  Vinea,  a  shed  (pushed  forward  on 
wheels),  under  which  generally  hung  the  aries ;  5.  Turris,  a 
wooden  tower,  lofty  enough  to  overtop  the  walls  of  the  city, 
against  which  it  was  usually  wheeled  upon  an  artificial 
mound  {agger).  It  was  faced  with  iron  or  wet  hides,  to  pro- 
tect it  from  fire,  and  consisted  of  several  stories  [tabidata), 
on  which  slingers,  catapults,  &c.,  were  placed. 


MILITAEY  REWARDS  AND  PUNISHMENTS. 
TRIUMPH.     OVATION. 

Besides  a  share  in  the  booty  taken  from  an  enemy,  the 
Roman  soldiers  received  as  rewards  garlands  of  leaves  or 
flowers.     The  principal  were :  1.  Corona  civica,  a  crown  of 


NAVAL    AFFAIRS.  137 

oak-leaves,  presented  to  one  who  saved  the  life  of  a  citizen ; 
2.  Corona  castrensis,  given  to  the  soldier  who  first  forced  an 
entrance  into  an  enemy's  camp ;  3.  Corona  muralis,  for  him 
who  first  scaled  the  walls  of  a  besieged  city ;  4.  Corona  obsi- 
dionalis  or  graminea  (grass),  given  to  the  commander  who 
had  relieved  a  besieged  city,  or  an  army  surrounded  by  an 
enemy ;  5.  Corona  oleagina  (olive-leaves),  presented  by  their 
commanders  to  soldiers  who  had  distinguished  themselves. 
The  other  rewards  were  weapons  of  honour,  liasta  pura; 
vexiUdy  standards ;  jplialerce,  trappings ;  aiirece  torqites,  gold 
chains ;  armillce,  bracelets,  &c.,  &c.  The  military  punish- 
ments were  deprivation  of  pay,  degradation  of  rank,  to  be 
beaten  with  rods,  to  be  scourged  and  sold  as  a  slave,  to  be 
stoned,  to  be  beheaded,  &c.,  &c. 

The  highest  honour  a  general  could  obtain  was  a  triumph, 
and  to  be  saluted  as  Imperator  by  his  army.  To  be  honoured 
with  a  triumph,  it  was  necessary  that  the  general  should  in 
a  just  war  have  extended  the  bounds  of  the  empire,  and  de- 
stroyed more  than  5000  enemies  in  one  battle.  On  a  triumph 
being  decreed,  the  procession  proceeded  from  the  Campus 
Martins  to  the  Capitolium,  and  consisted  of  musicians,  oxen 
for  sacrifice,  the  spoils  taken  in  war,  models  of  the  captured 
cities,  the  captives,  the  lictors  (their  fasces  being  wreathed 
with  laurel),  and  the  general  {dux)  dressed  in  purple  embroi- 
dered with  gold  (iogd  pidd  et  tunica  palmatd),  crowned  with 
a  laurel  wreath,  and  in  an  ornamented  chariot  drawn  by  four 
white  horses,  followed  by  the  victorious  army.  There  was 
also  an  inferior  sort  of  triumph,  ovatio,  in  which  the  general 
entered  the  city  on  foot,  crowned  with  a  wreath  of  myrtle, 
and  sacrificed  a  sheep. 


NAVAL  AFFAIRS. 

For  the  names  of  the  various  parts  of  a  ship,  tackling,  &c., 
the  reader  is  referred  to  Greek  Antiq.,  ** Naval  Affairs/'  page 
12* 


138  PRIVATE    LIFE    OF    THE    ROMANS. 

113,  where  the  corresponding  Latin  names  are  given.  The 
Roman  navy  consisted  of  naves  longce,  triremes,  quadriremeSy 
qidiiqiierenies ;  lighter  vessels,  actuariae,  liburnce,  vide  page 
113  ;  ouerarice,  ships  of  burden  or  transports.  The  Romans 
in  their  engagements  attempted  to  set  fire  to  the  enemy's 
ships,  or  seize  and  board  them  by  means  of  corvi,  Jerrece  mar 
Qiifs,  and  harpagones,  grappling  irons,  &c.  Sometimes  towers 
or  castles  were  built  on  their  vessels,  from  which  arrows 
and  other  missiles  were  discharged.  The  vessels  were  often 
manned  by  slaves,  freedmen,  and  the  lowest  class  of  citizerts. 
The  admiral,  dux,  prcefectus  classi,  was  usually  a  Consul,  and 
his  ship  was  called  navis  prcetoria. 


PRIVATE  LIFE  OF  THE  ROMANS. 

Dress. 

The  dress  of  the  Romans  consisted  of  the  tunica,  a  woollen 
garment,  which  was  generally  without  sleeves,  and  reached 
a  little  below  the  knees.  A  long  tunic  with  sleeves  was  con- 
sidered effeminate.  The  tunic  was  fastened  round  the  w^aist 
by  a  belt,  cingidum.  The  Senators  wore  a  tunica  laticlaviaj 
with  a  broad  purple  stripe  wrought  in  the  cloth ;  and  the . 
Equites  or  Knights  a  tunic  with  a  narrow  stripe,  tunica 
angusticlama.  A  dress  called  suhucula  was  generally  worn 
under  the  tunica.  The  toga,  the  distinguishing  part  of  the 
Roman  dress,  was  an  outer  gown  or  mantle,  thrown  round 
the  body  so  as  to  cover  the  left  arm,  and  leave  the  right 
partly  exposed,  and  forming  a  fold,  sinus,  on  the  breast; 
these  folds,  when  collected  in  a  knot  or  centre,  being  called 
mnho.  The  colour  of  the  toga  was  white  [alba,  piira).  Can- 
didates for  office  wore  a  toga  whitened  by  the  fuller  (toga 
Candida). 


PRIVATE    LIFE    OF    THE    ROMANS.  139 

Magistrates  wore  the  toga  prcetexta,  bordered  with  purple ; 
and  generals  in  a  triumph  an  embroidered  toga,  picta  or  pal' 
mata,  having  palm-leaves  worked  on  it.  The  toga  praBtexta 
was  worn  by  young  women  until  they  were  married,  and 
young  men  till  they  were  seventeen  years  of  age,  when  the 
latter  assumed  the  toga  virilis  ;  this  ceremony  was  performed 
with  great  solemnity  in  the  Forum.  The  pcenula  was  a  gar- 
ment used  chiefly  as  a  travelling-cloak.  In  later  times,  the 
lacenia,  a  kind  of  great-coat,  was  worn  above  the  toga,  with 
the  cucullus,  a  cowl  or  hood;  similar  to  the  lacerna  was  the 
Icena.  The  stola  was  a  female  dress  worn  over  the  tunica, 
and  fastened  by  a  girdle ;  over  the  stola  was  worn  the  palla, 
corresponding  to  the  toga  of  the  male  sex. 

The  coverings  of  the  feet  were  calcei,  shoes,  when  abroad, 
and  solece,  sandals,  which  only  covered  the  sole  of  the  foot. 
The  shoes  of  the  soldiers  were  called  caligce,  of  comedians, 
socci,  and  of  tragedians,  cothurni. 

The  head  was  uncovered,  except  in  bad  weather  or  when 
on  a  journey,  when  the  pileus,  hat,  or  galerus,  cap,  was 
worn. 

Rings  [amiuU],  set  with  precious  stones,  were  very  much 
worn  by  the  Romans ;  the  Senators  and  Equites  used  golden 
rino-s,  the  Plebeians  iron  ones. 


Meals. 

The  first  meal  taken  was  the  jentaculum,  or  breakfast ;  t(> 
this  followed  the  prandium,  or  luncheon,  taken  about  noon  • 
coena,  or  dinner,  was  the  next  and  the  principal  meal  of  tho 
Romans ;  it  was  taken  in  the  evening,  and  consisted  of  three 
courses,  the  first  gustatio,  antecoena,  or  promulsis,  the  second 
or  principal  course  caput  coence,  and  the  dessert  mensoi  secundce 
or  hellaria.  The  guests  reclined,  according  ;to  their  rank,  on 
couches  [lecti],  generally  three,  summus,  medius,  imus,  at 
each  table,  thus : — 


140        PRIVATE    LIFE    OF    THE    ROMANS, 
lectus  medius 


imus 

medius 

summus 

summus 

medius 

imus 

6       5       4 

imus 

medius 

summus 

V 
8 
9 

mensa 

3 

2 

1 

\A.  supper,  commissatio,  was  sometimes  taken  after  the  cosna. 
Wine,  though  rarely  drunk  in  early  times,  came  afterwards 
into  general  use,  but  was  sometimes  mingled  with  water  or 
cooled  with  snow.  The  best  Italian  wines  were  vinum  CcecU" 
bum,  Falernum,  Massicum,  Calenum,  Alhdnum,  Sun^entinum, 
Sel'mum,  &c. ;  the  foreign  were  vinum  Chium,  Lesbium,  Leu- 
cadium,  Coumy  Rhodium,  Naxium,  Mceonium,  &c.  The  winea 
were  brought  to  table  in  jars,  arnphorce,  and  mixed  with  water 
in  a  bowl,  crater ,  whence  it  was  poured  into  pocula,  cups. 


Private  Houses.     Baths. 

Though  at  first  mere  cottages,  the  houses  of  the  Romans  in 
after-times  were  built  in  a  style  of  great  elegance,  and  orna- 
mented with  marble  pillars,  elegant  furniture,  pictures,  vases, 
candelabra,  &c. 

The  principal  parts  of  the  Roman  houses  were :  1.  Vesti- 
bulum,  an  open  space  before  the  doors,  enclosed  on  three 
sides  by  the  building ;  2.  Ostium  or  janua,  the  door  or  en- 
trance, with  the  limeii,  threshold,  postcs,  door-posts,  foi-es  or 
valvce,  the  actual  doors ;  3.  Atrium  or  cavum  cedium,  the  prin- 
cipal apartment :  in  the  centre  of  the  roof  was  an  opening, 
compluvium,  from  which  the  rain-water  fell  into  a  cistern 


PRIVATE    LIFE    OF    THE    ROMANS.         141 

[impluvium)  in  the  floor;  this  impluvium,  which  also  denoted 
the  aperture  in  the  roof,  was  ornamented  with  statues,  &c. ; 
4.  AlcBy  the  wings  or  small  apartments  on  each  side  of  the 
atrium;  5.  PerHsti/lmm,  adjoining  the  cedium,  a  partially  open 
court-yard  surrounded  by  columns,  and  ornamented  with 
shrubs  and  flowers ;  6.  Cuhicula  or  dormitoria,  bed-chambers ; 
7.  Triclinia,  dining-rooms ;  8.  (Eci  and  exedra%  saloons ;  9. 
Pinacotheca,  or  picture-gallery;  10.  Bibliotheca,  library;  11. 
Coenacida,  rooms  on  the  second  story.  The  floors,  sola,  were 
frequently  laid  in  mosaic,  and  the  inner  walls,  parietes,  lined 
with  slabs  of  marble  and  pictures.  The  windows,  fenestras, 
were  closed  with  wooden  shutters ;  and  in  the  time  of  the 
Emperors  with  transparent  stone  {lapis  specidaris,  mica)  and 
glass  (vitrum).  The  ceilings  were  flat,  and  divided  by  the 
intersection  of  the  beams  and  planks  into  hollows  [lacunaria, 
laquearia),  which  were  often  carved  and  gilt. 

Baths,  balnece,  thermce.  The  Romans  at  first  used  baths 
but  seldom,  and  only  for  health  and  cleanliness ;  but  after- 
wards as  a  luxury.  They  were  taken  after  exercise,  and  pre- 
vious to  the  principal  meal,  coena,  and  sometimes  after  eat- 
ing, to  promote  digestion.  The  principal  parts  of  the  public 
thertnce  were:  1.  Vestibulum,  in  which  the  servants  waited, 
and  the  balneaior,  or  keep(!r,  received  the  quadrans  paid  by 
each  visitor ;  2.  Apodyterium,  or  undressing-room ;  3.  Frigi- 
darium,  the  cold-bath;  4.  Tepidarium,  the  tepid-bath,  or  a 
chamber  heated  with  air ;  5.  Caldarium,  the  warm-bath, 
warmed  by  liypocausta,  heating-apparatus.  After  bathing, 
the  Romans  made  use  of  instruments  called  strigiles,  or 
scrapers,  for  removing  the  oil  with  which  they  were  anointed, 
and  the  impurities  of  the  skin,  and  lintea,  towels. 

Amusements. 

The  Romans  before  bathing  took  various  kinds  of  exercise, 
one  of  which  was  tennis,  played  with  a  small  ball,  pila,  or 
with  the  follis,  an  inflated  ball  of  leather.  During  the  in- 
tervals of  drinking,  they  played  at  various  games  of  chance, 
among  which  were  ale  a,  dice,  played  with  lali  (huckle-bones) 


142         PRIVATE    LIFE    OF    THE    ROMANS. 

sometimes  numbered  on  four  sides  (1,  3,  4,  6)  and  the  ends 
left  blank,  or  with  iesserce,  dice  made  of  ivory,  bono,  or  wood, 
and  numbered  on  six  sides,  as  with  us  ;  at  first  three  dice 
were  used,  but  afterwards  two.  The  dice-box  was  called 
fritlllus.  The  board,  alveus,  alveolus,  or  abacus,  was  divided 
by  twelve  lines,  and  was  frequently  used  for  playing  with 
two  sets  of  latrunculi  or  draughtsmen,  fifteen  on  each  side ; 
this  game,  Indus  duodecim  scriptorum,  nearly  agreed  with  our 
backgammon,  and  the  Indus  calculorum  was  similar  to  chess. 
At  drinking-bouts  [commissationes)  a  president  was  chosen 
by  throwing  the  dice,  named  magister  vel  arbiter  bibendi,  or 
rex  convivii. 

Funerals. 

The  Romans,  like  the  Greeks,  paid  great  attention  to  funeral 
rites,  as  they  believed  the  souls  of  the  unburied  could  not 
enter  the  abodes  of  the  dead.  On  the  death  of  a  friend,  the 
nearest  relative  closed  the  eyes  and  mouth  of  the  deceased, 
and  called  on  him  by  name  (conclamare) ,  exclaiming  have  or 
vale;  the  corpse  was  then  washed  and  anointed  with  oil  and 
perfumes  by  slaves,  who  belonged  to  the  undertakers,  libiti' 
narii,  and  a  small  coin  was  placed  in  the  mouth  of  the  corpse 
to  p^iy  the  ferryman  of  Hades  (Charon) ;  the  body  was  then 
clothed  in  its  shroud  (the  best  toga  the  deceased  had  worn 
when  alive;  magistrates  in  the  praetexta),  and  laid  out  in 
the  vestibule,  with  feet  towards  the  door,  and  a  branch  of 
cypress  was  placed  in  front  of  the  house.  The  corpse  was 
usually  carried  out  for  burial  on  the  eighth  day  after  death. 
The  funeral  procession  was  formed  of  musicians  [cornicines, 
&c.),  mourning  women  [prceficce],  who  sang  a  dirge  [mimi 
sometimes  attended),  slaves ;  and  persons  bearing  the  ima- 
gines (representing  the  ancestors  of  the  deceased)  preceded 
the  corpse,  which  was  carried  on  a  couch  (lecUca  or  fereirum), 
followed  by  the  relatives  of  the  deceased.  If  the  deceased 
were  a  noble,  the  procession  stopped  at  the  Forum,  where  a 
laiidatlo  was  delivered.  The  corpse  was  then  carried  ofi"  and 
turied  (humare,  sepelire),  or  burned  [cremare)  on  a  pile  of 
wood  [pyra  or  rogus),  sprinkled,  when  burning,  with  in- 


PRIVATE    LIFE    OF    THE    ROMANS.         143 

cense,  &c.  When  burnt  down,  the  embers  were  soaked  with 
wine,  and  the  bones  and  ashes  of  the  deceased  collected  and 
placed  in  an  urn  (urna),  which  was  deposited  in  a  tomb 
(sepulcJirum).  The  mourning  and  solemnities  continued  for 
nine  days,  at  the  end  of  which  a  sacrifice,  Novendiale,  took 
place,  and  games  and  shows  of  gladiators  were  sometimes 
held  in  honour  of  the  deceased. 


Names. 

To  mark  the  different  gentes  and  familise,  and  to  distin- 
guish individuals  of  the  same  family,  the  Roman  citizens  had 
three  names:  the  first  [prcenomen),  as  Quint  us,  indicated 
the  individual;  the  second  (nomen),  as  Horatius,  the  ^e/is 
or  clan;  the  third  [cognomen),  as  Flaccus,  the  siirps  or 
familia,  family.  A  fourth  name  [agnomen)  was  sometimes 
added,  for  some  illustrious  action  or  remarkable  event,  e.  g. 
Scipio  was  called  Africanus,  from  the  conquest  of  Carthage 
and  Africa.  The  daughters  bore  the  name  of  the  gens,  Cor- 
nelia, Julia,  Livia,  Tullia,  &c.  The  following  are  some  of 
the  contractions  used  for  the  prgenomina :  Ap.,  Appius ;  A., 
Aulus;  C,  Caius;  Cn.,  Cneius;  D.,  Decimus;  K.,  Kgeso;  L., 
Lucius  ;  M.,  Marcus ;  M'.,  JNJanius  ;  N.,  Numerius  ;  P.,  Pub- 
lius;  Q.,  Quintus ;  Ser.,  Servius;  Sex.,  Sextus ;  Sp.,  Spuriua; 
T.,  Titus ;  Ti.,  Tiberius. 


ANCIENT  GREEK  WEITERS, 


POETS. 

Epic. 

ilOMER  flourished  about  B.C.  900.  Birth-place  uncertain, 
seven  v;ities  contended  for  the  honour.'  Works :  Iliads  twenty- 
four  books  ;   Odyssey,  twenty-four  books. 

HESIOD,  born  at  Ascra,  in  Boeotia.  Flourished  about 
B.C.  800.  AVorks  extant:  ©foyoj^ca,  Theogony ;  ^Acnl^  'HpaxTiovj, 
Shield  \)i  Hercules ;  and  "Epya  xai  *HjUfp£u,  Works  and  Days. 

Tragic.2 

iESCHYLUS,  born  at  Eleusis,  in  Attica,  b.c.  525 ;  died  at 
Gela,  in  Sicily,  b.  c.  456,  aged  sixty-nine.  Works :  seventy 
tragedies,  of  which  only  seven  ^re  extant,  viz. :  Prometheus 
Cliabicd,  Seven  Chiefs  against  Thebes,  The  Persians,  The 
Suppliant^,  Agamemnon,  The  Choephorce,  The  Eumenides. 

SOPHOCLES,  born  at  Athens,  b.c.  495  ;  died  in  his  nine- 
tieth year,  b.c  406.  Works:  130  plays,  of  which  only  seven 
are  extant,  viz.:  Antigone,  Electra,  Trachinice,  Ajax,  Philoc- 
tetes,  (Edipus  Tyrannus,  (Edipus  in  Colonus. 

^  "  Sei».^m  urbes  certant  de  stirpe  insignis  Homeri, 

Smyna,  Chios,  Colophon,  Salamis,  Rhodos,  Argos,  Athena)." 

2  The  D'thyrambs,  or  choral  hymns  chanted  at  the  Dionysia  (vide 
Antiq.),  fi^st  assumed  the  form  of  Tragedy,  when  Thespis,  about  B.C. 
535,  introduced  between  them  the  representation  Spafiu  l-EiaoSiov,  of  a 
story  or  plot  by  a  single  actor  {hrroKpiT^s),  who  was  separated  from  the 
chorus,  and  played  many  parts  in  succession.  iEschylus  added  a 
second  actor,  and  thus  founded  the  dialogue.  Sophocles  introduced  a 
third  actor. 

(144) 


ANCIENT    GREEK    WRITERS.  145 

EURIPIDES,  born  at  Salamis,  b.c.  480;  died  at  Mace- 
ionia,  B.C.  406,  in  his  seventy -fifth  year.  He  is  said  to  have 
written  ninety-two  plays,  by  some ;  by  others,  seventy-five, 
nineteen  of  which  have  reached  us,  viz. :  Medea,  Electra^ 
Orestes,  Iphigenla  in  Aulis,  Iphigema  in  Tauris,  Andromache^ 
Trojan  Captives,  Hecuba,  Ion,  The  Suppliants,  Children  of 
Hercules,  Fhoenician  Damsels,  Eaging  Hercides,  Alcestis,  Hip- 
pclytusy  Rhesus,  The  Bacchanalians,  Helen,  The  Cyclops. 

Comic. 

ARISTOPHANES,  born  at  Athens,  about  b.c.  444;  died 
about  B.  c.  380.  Works :  fifty-four  plays,  of  which  eleven 
remain  perfect:  Acharnians,  Knights,  Clouds,  Wasps,  Peace, 
Birds,  Thesmophoriazusce,  or  Feasts  of  Ceres,  Lgsistrata, 
Frogs,  Ecclesiazusce,  or  Female  Orators,  Plutus. 

The  other  writers  of  the  "Old  Comedy  of  Greece'^  were 
Epicharmus,  born  b.c  540;  Phormus,  about  b.c.  480;  Crates, 
B.C.  450;  Cratinus,  b.c.  445  ;  Eupolis,  b.c.  434. 

The  poets  of  the  "Middle  Comedy''  were  Antiphanes,  b.c. 
380;  Eubulus,  Alexis,  Anaxandrides,  and  Araros,  b.c.  375; 
Timocles,  b.c.  336.     Of  the  *'  New  Comedy"  were, 

MENANDER,  born  at  Athens,  B.C.  342,  educated  under 
Theophrastus ;  died  b.c.  291.  Works:  upwards  of  100  come- 
dies, of  which  only  fragments  remain. 

PHILEMON,  born  at  Soli  or  Syracuse,  flourished  about 
B.C.  330.  Works:  ninety-seven  comedies,  of  which  only  frag- 
ment.'} are  extant ;  the  other  writers  were  Philippides,  Di- 
philus,  Apollodorus  flourished  b.c.  336  to  300;  Posidippus, 
B.C.  289. 

Lyric. 

ANACREON,  born  at  Teos,  in  Ionia,  about  b.  c.  563 ;  died, 
aged  eighty-five,  about  b.c.  478.  Works:  Of  five  books,  sixty- 
eight  poems  and  fragments  are  extant ;  many  of  the  odes  are 
considered  spurious. 

SAPPHO,  born  at  Mitylene,  in  Lesbos,  flourished  about 
B.C.  610.     Her  poems  formed  nine  books,  of  which  only  frag- 
ments are  extant. 
13 


146  ANCIENT    GREEK    WRITERS. 

ALCiEUS,  born  at  Mitylene,  in  Lesbos,  flourished  about 
B.  c.  604.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  the  "  bar- 
biton/^  or  harp.  Of  his  works,  only  a  few  fragments  of  war- 
songs  remain  to  us. 

PINDAR,  born  at  Thebes,  in  Boeotia,  b.  c.  522 ;  died,  pro- 
bably  in  his  eightieth  year,  B.C.  442.  Works:  Upinicia,  or 
triumphal  odes  describing  the  four  national  games  of  the 
Greeks  ;  four  books  entire,  and  numerous  fragments,  remain. 

The  other  lyric  poets,  fragments  of  some  of  whose  works 
we  have,  are  Alcman,  b.c.  670;  Stesichorus,  b.c.  612;  Simo- 
nides,  b.c.  540;  Bacchylides,  b.c.  452. 

Pastoral. 

THEOCRITUS,  born  at  Syracuse,  flourished  b.  c.  284-280. 
Works :  Thirty  poems  known  as  Idyls,  twenty-two  epigrams, 
and  a  few  fragments,  are  extant,  which  may  be  divided  into 
pastoral,  lyric,  epic,  mimetic,  and  epigrammatic. 

BION,  born  near  Smyrna,  flourished  about  B.C.  280.  Of 
his  works,  fragments  are  alone  extant. 

MOSCHUS,  born  at  Syracuse,  flourished  about  b.c.  250. 
Of  his  works,  only  four  of  his  Idyls,  an  epigram,  and  three 
small  fragments,  are  extant. 


PROSE   WRITERS. 

Historians. 

HERODOTUS,  born  at  Halicarnassus,  in  Caria,  b.c.  484; 
died  subsequent  to  b.c.  408,  exact  period  unknown.  His 
history,  which  embraces  a  period  of  about  240  years  (from 
the  time  of  Cyrus),  is  divided  into  nine  books,  called  by  the 
names  of  the  Muses. 

THUCYDIDES,  born  at  Athens,  b.c.  471;  died  in  exile, 
probably  at  Scaptesyle,  in  Thrace,  b.c.  391,  aged  eigiity. 
Works :  History  of  the  Peloponnesian  War,  in  eight  books, 
which  he  brought  down  to  the  twenty-first  year,  and  Xeno* 
phon  concluded  to  the  twenty-eighth. 


ANCIENT    GREEK    WRITERS.  147 

XENOPHON,  born  about  B.C.  445,  educated  in  the  school 
of  Socrates  ;  died  about  B.C.  359,  beyond  ninety  years  of  age, 
probably  at  Corinth.  Works:  Anabasis,  in  seven  books; 
Hellenica  (the  continuation  of  the  history  of  Thucydides),  in 
seven  books  ;  Cyj^opcedia  (memoirs  of  Cyrus),  in  eight  books ; 
Memorabilia,  in  four  books ;  Agesilaus ;  The  Athenian  Re- 
public; The  Lacedcemonian  Republic;  De  reEqiiestri;  Hip- 
par  chicus ;  Cynegeticus ;  Hiero ;  Apology  of  Socrates;  Sym- 
posium ;   (Economicus. 

POLYBIUS,  born  at  Megalopolis,  in  Arcadia,  about  b.c. 
203  ;  died  b.  c.  121,  in  his  eighty-second  jear.  Work :  A 
Universal  History,  in  forty  books  (of  which  only  five  remain 
entire),  commencing  b.c.  220. 

DIODORUS  SICULUS,  born  at  Agyrium,  in  Sicily,  flou- 
rished B.C.  60-30.  Work:  A  History  of  Egypt,  Persia,  Syria, 
Media,  Greece,  Rome,  and  Carthage,  in  forty  books,  of  which 
fifteen  and  some  fragments  are  extant. 

DIONYSIUS  OF  HALICARNASSUS  flourished  b.c.  29-7. 
Work :  Antiquities  of  Rome,  in  twenty-two  books  (of  which 
eleven  now  remain),  comprising  the  History  of  Rome  for  312 
years  down  to  b.  c.  264. 

PLUTARCH,  born  at  Chaeronea,  in  Boeotia;  died  about 
A.  D.  140.  He  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to  Rome,  where .  he 
opened  a  school.  He  was  honoured  by  ^Vajan  with  the  ap- 
pointment of  governor  of  Illyricum.  Works :  Lives  of  lUtis- 
trious  Men,  Moralia. 

Orators. 

PERICLES,  born  at  Athens,  about  b.c.  499;  died  b.c.  429. 
The  first  Greek  orator,  surnamed,  from  the  grandeur  of  his 
style,  the  Olympian. 

LYSIAS,  born  at  Athens,  b.c.  458;  died  b.c.  378,  aged 
eighty.  Of  his  orations,  thirty-four  are  extant,  remarkable 
for  their  purity  of  style. 

ISOCRATES,  born  at  Athens,  b.c.  436;  died  b.c.  338,  in 
his  ninety-eighth  year,  being  unable  to  survive  the  blow  the 
liberty  of  his  country  nceived  at  the  battle  of  Chaeronea, 


148  ANCIENT    GREEK     WRITERS. 

As  Tsocrates  was  prevented  by  timidity  from  addressing  the 
national  assemblies,  he  opened  a  school  in  Athens,  where  he 
distinguished  himself  by  the  number,  character,  and  fjime  of 
his  pupils.  Onl}-  twenty-one  of  his  orations  have  come  down 
to  us  ;  he  is  said  to  have  written  sixty. 

DEMOSTHENES,  born  at  Athens,  B.C.  382:  died  at  Ca- 
lauria,  by  poison,  b.  c.  322.  Of  his  orations,  which  have  been 
always  celebrated  as  the  most  perfect  models  of  eloquence, 
sixty-one  are  extant,  viz. :  seventeen  political  orations,  forty- 
two  judicial,  and  two  show  speeches. 

ISiEUS  flourished  about  b.  c.  360.  He  was  the  instructor 
of  Demosthenes.  Works:  sixty -four  orations,  of  which  eleven 
are  now  remaining. 

iESCHINES,  born  b.c.  389;  died  at  Samos  or  Rhodes, 
B.C.  314.  Works:  nine  epistles  and  three  orations,  of  which 
the  orations  alone  are  extant. 

The  other  Greek  orators  are  Demades  and  Hyperides ;  they 
flourished  about  B.C.  335. 


Medical  Writers. 

HIPPOCRATES,  born  in  the  island  of  Cos,  about  b.c.  460; 
died  at  Larissa,  in  Thessaly,  b.  c.  357,  in  his  104th  year.  Of 
his  works,  more  than  sixty  in  number,  the  majority  being 
written  by  his  disciples  and  followers,  only  a  few  are  genuine: 
Pracenotiones,  or  Prognosiicon  ;  Aphorismi  ;  De  Morhis  Popu- 
laribus,  or  Epidemiorum ;  De  Ratione  Victus  in  Morhis  Acutis, 
or  De  Diceta  Acuiorum;  De  Aere,  Aqms,  et  Locis;  De  Capitis 
Vulnerihus, 

GALEN,  born  at  Pergamum,  a.d.  130;  died  about  a.d.  200. 
Works,  under  the  name  of  Galen :  eighty-three  Treatises 
[genuine)',  nineteen,  genuineness  doubted;  forty-five  spurious ^ 
nineteen  Fragments ;  fifteen  Commentaries  on  the  works  of 
Hippocrates. 


ANCIENT    GREEK    WRITERS.  149 

MATHEMATICIANS. 

EUCLID  flourished  at  Alexandria,  in  the  time  of  the  first 
Ptolemy,  B.C.  323-283,  and  was  the  founder  of  the  Alexan- 
drine Mathematical  School.  Works  extant:  The  Elements, 
in  thirteen  books,  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  being  added 
by  Hypsicles ;  The  Data^  containing  100  propositions ;  The 
Division  of  the  Scale  ;  a  Treatise  on  Optics,  &c. 

ARCHIMEDES,  born  at  Syracuse,  B.C.  287;  slain  at  the 
taking  of  Syracuse,  b.  c.  212.  Works  extant :  On  Equipon- 
derants and  Centres  of  Gravity  ;  The  Quadrature  of  the  Para- 
bola; On  the  Sphere  and  Cylinder;  The  Dimension  of  the 
Circle  ;■  Spirals  ;  Conoids  and  Spheroids ;  The  Arenarius  ;  On 
Floating  Bodies;  Lemmata.  Archimedes  is  said  to  have  con- 
structed engines  used  for  military  and  naval  purposes,  and 
many  machines,  among  which  was  the  water-screw ;  but  his 
most  famous  invention  was  a  kind  of  orrery,  representing 
the  movements  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 


GEOGRAPHERS. 

STRABO,  born  at  Amasia,  in  Pontus,  about  B.C.  54;  died 
about  A.D.  24.  Works:  a  work  on  Geography ,  in  seventeen 
books ;  this  is  entire,  with  the  exception  of  the  seventh  book. 
Strabo  wrote  a  history,  in  forty-three  books  (in  continuation 
of  that  of  Polybius),  which  is  lost. 

PAUSANIAS,  born  in  Lydia(?),  flourished  about  a.  d.  170. 
Works :  Periegesis,  or  Itinerary  of  Greece,  in  ten  books. 


FABULIST. 

iESOP  flourished  about  B.C.  570.     He  was  originally  a 
slave,  but  received  his  freedom  from  ladmon,  his  master. 
The  Fables  now  extant  in  prose,  attributed  to  -^sop,  are  said 
to  be  spurious. 
13* 


150  ANCIENT    GREEK    WRITERS. 


SATIRIC   WRITER. 

LUCIAN,  born  at  Samosata,  in  Syria,  about  a.d.  120;  died 
about  the  end  of  the  century.  Works :  Dialognes,  comprising 
The  Dialogues  of  the  GodSy  twenty-six  in  number ;  Jupiter 
Convicted;  Vitarum  Audio,  or  Sale  of  Philosopliers ;  The 
Fishermen,  &c. ;  The  Dialogues  of  the  Dead,  comprising  Icaro 
Menippus,  Charon,  &c. 


CRITIC. 


LONGINUS  flourished  about  a.  d.  250.  He  opened  a  school 
at  Athens,  in  which  he  taught  philosophy,  criticism,  rhetoric, 
and  grammar;  but  afterwards  went  to  the  East,  where  he 
became  the  tutor  of  Zenobia,  queen  of  Palmyra,  on  w^hose 
capture  he  was  put  to  death,  a.  d.  273.  Work :  On  the  Sub- 
lime, Ilfpc  "T^i,  a  great  part  of  which  is  extant. 


PHILOSOPHERS. 

THALES,  the  Ionic,  Philosopher,  born  at  Miletus,  B.C.  636 ; 
died  about  B.C.  546.  One  of  the  founders  in  Greece  of  the 
study  of  philosophy.  He  maintained  water  was  the  first 
principle  of  all  things. 

PYTHAGORAS,  born  at  Samos ;  flourished  B.C.  540-510 
He  travelled  in  Egypt  and  the  East,  and  finally  settled  at 
Crotona,  in  Italy,  whence  he  is  called  the  Italic  Philosopher. 
The  whole  discipline  of  his  sect  is  represented  as  tending  to 
a  lofty  serenity  and  self-possession.  They  believed  in  the 
transmigration  of  souls;  and  it  was  one  of  their  maxims,  that 
**  every  thing  should  not  be  told  to  every  body ;''  hence  all 
that  was  done  and  taught  by  the  members  was  kfjpt  a  pro- 
found secret  to  all  but  themselves. 


4lNCient  greek  writers.  151 

SOCRATES,  born  near  Athens,  b.c.  469;  died  B.C.  399. 
Socrates  was  the  first  who  turned  his  thoughts  to  the  subject 
of  Ethics ;  in  discussing  which,  he  employed  the  dialectic  or 
interrogative  system,  termed  from  him  the  Socratic.  Not- 
withstanding his  efforts  to  promote  the  welfare  of  mankind, 
he  was  accused  of  corrupting  the  Athenian  youth,  and  was 
sentenced  to  drink  poison. 

PLATO,  born  at  Athens,  B.C.  429  or  428;  died  b.c.  347. 
He  was  the  founder  of  the  Academic  School,  and  in  his 
writings  are  preserved  the  doctrines  of  Socrates,  whose  dis- 
ciple he  was.  The  writings  of  Plato  have  come  down  to  us 
complete;  they  are  in  the  form  oi  dialogues,  which  are  closely 
connected  with  one  another,  and  may  be  divided  into  three 
series. 

ARISTOTLE,  born  at  Stagira,  in  Macedonia,  b.c.  384; 
died  B.C.  322,  at  Chalcis,  in  Euboea.  He  was  the  founder  of 
the  Peripatetic  School,  so  called,  either  from  his  delivering 
his  lectures  in  the  shady  walks  (rtapmarot)  surrounding  the 
Lyceum,  or  while  Avalking  up  and  down  [rCipina'tMv).  His 
numerous  writings  comprise  works  on,  1.  Dialectics  and 
Logic;  2.  Theoretical  Philosophy,  Mathematics,  Natural  His- 
tory, &c. ;  3.  Practical  Philosophy  or  Politics,  Ethics,  &c. ; 
4.  Works  on  Art, 

ZENO,  the  founder  of  Stoic  Philosophy,  born  at  Citium,  in 
Cyprus.  Birth  and  death  uncertain.  Flourished  about  B.C. 
280.  After  many  years'  study,  and  having  sufficiently  deve- 
loped his  peculiar  philosophical  system,  he  opened  his  school 
in  one  of  the  Porticoes  at  Athens  [Stoa  Pcecile),  and  hence 
his  disciples  were  called  Stoics.  The  Stoic  philosophy  recog- 
nised real  good  only  in  virtue,  and  enjoined  a  life  in  accord- 
ance with  nature. 

EPICURUS,  the  founder  of  the  Epicurean  School,  born  in 
the  island  of  Samos,  b.c.  342;  died  b.c.  270.  He  is  said  to 
have  written  300  volumes,  of  which  the  principal  was  a  work 
on  Nature,  in  thirty-seven  books.  The  theory  of  the  Epicu- 
reans represented  pleasure  as  constituting  the  greatest  hap- 
piness, and  must  therefore  be  the  chief  end  of  man. 


ANCIENT  ROMAN  WRITERS. 


POETS. 

N.  B.  —  The  chief  works  of  the  writers  are  mentioned,  though 
all  may  not  come  under  the  same  classified  heads. 

Epic. 

ENNIUS  (Quintus  Ennius),  born  at  Rudise,  in  Calabria, 
B.C.  239.  He  lived  on  intimate  terms  with  Scipio  Africanus, 
and  died  B.C.  169,  aged  seventy.  The  Romans  regarded 
Ennius  as  the  "father  of  their  poetry/'  Work:  Fragments 
only  extant,  though  Ennius  wrote  Annales  (i.  e.  a  history  of 
Rome,  from  its  foundation  to  his  own  times),  an  epic  poem, 
in  eighteen  books. 

VIRGIL  (Pub.  Yirgilius  Maro),  born  15th  of  Oct.,  b.c.  70, 
at  Andes,  a  small  village  near  Mantua;  educated  at  Cremona 
and  Mediolanum  [Milan) ;  died  22d  of  Sept.,  b.c.  19,  in  his 
fifty-first  year,  at  Brundusium  [Brindisi),  Works:  JEneid, 
in  twelve  books ;  Bucolics j  ten  short  poems  (Pastorals) ; 
Georgics^  an  agricultural  poem,  in  four  books. 

SILIUS  (C.  S.  Italicus),  born  about  a.d.  25;  died  about 
his  seventy-fifth  year.     Work :  Funica,  in  seventeen  books. 

LUC  AN  (M.  Annseus  Lucanus),  born  at  Corduba,  in  Spain, 
A.D.  39  ;  died  a.d.  65,  in  his  twenty-sixth  year.  Work:  The 
Pharsalia,  in  ten  books,  alone  extant. 

VALERIUS  FLACCUS  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Vespa- 
sian;  he  was  a  native  of  Padua,  and  died  a.d.  88.  Work: 
Argonautica^  an  unfinished  poem,  in  eight  books. 

STATIUS  (P.  Papinius),  born  at  Neapolis,  about  a.d.  61; 
died  about  a.  d.  96.  Works :  Thebaid,  in  twelve  books ;  Silvcet 
a  collection  of  occasional  poems,  in  five  books. 

(152) 


ANCIENT    ROMAN    WRITERS.  153 

Elegiac. 

OVID  (P.  Ovidius  Naso),  born  at  Sulmo,  in  the  country  of 
tlie  Peligni,  20th  of  March,  b.c.  43.  He  was  descended  from 
an  ancient  family,  and  enjoyed  the  favour  of  Augustus,  by 
whose  edict  (a.d.  9)  he  was  suddenly  exiled,  without  even  a 
trial,  to  Tomi,  a  town  near  the  mouths  of  the  Danube,  where 
he  died,  in  the  sixtieth  year  of  his  age,  a.d.  18.  Works: 
Amoves,  three  books ;  Epistles,  twenty-one  in  number ;  Ars 
Amatoria;  Eemedia  Amoris,  one  book;  Metamorphoses,  fifteen 
books ;  Fasti  or  Roman  Calendar,  twelve  books,  six  only  ex- 
tant; Tristia,  five  books  (written  at  Tomi);  Epistoloz  ex  Ponto, 
four  books  ;  Minor  Poems ;  Nux,  or  The  Complaint  of  the 
Nut-tree;  Ibis,  a  satire,  &c. 

TIBULLUS  (Albius  Tibullus),  born  about  B.C.  54;  died 
about  B.  c.  18  ;  was  of  the  Equestrian  order :  his  patron  was 
Messala.  Work:  Elegies,  four  books;  the  genuineness  of 
several  poems  in  the  third  and  fourth  books  is  doubted. 

PROPERTIUS  (Sex.  Aurelius),  born  about  b.c.  51;  year 
of  death  unknown.  He  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Msecenas, 
Virgil,  and  Ovid.     Work :  Elegies,  four  books. 

Lyric. 

HORACE  (Q.  Horatius  Flaccus),  born  at  Venusia,  in  Apu- 
lia, Dec.  8,  B.C.  65.  His  father  was  a  collector  of  taxes,  and 
paid  the  greatest  attention  to  his  son's  education,  who  fre- 
quented the  best  schools  at  Rome,  and  visited  Athens  to  com- 
plete his  education.  He  lived  on  most  intimate  terms  with 
Maecenas,  a  Roman  knight,  and  obtained  the  p-itronage  of 
Augustus.  Horace  died  Nov.  17,  B.C.  8,  aged  fifty-six. 
Works :  Odes,  five  books ;  Satires,  two  books ;  Epistles,  two 
books  ;  a  poem,  De  Arte  Poetica. 

CATULLUS  (Valerius  Catullus),  born  at  Verona,  b.c.  87; 
died  about  b.c.  47.  Works  extant:  116  poems,  on  various 
topics,  composed  in  different  styles  and  metres. 


154  ANCIENT    ROMAN    WRITERS. 

Tragic. 

LITIUS  ANDRONICUS,  the  earliest  Roman  poet.  Frag, 
ments  of  his  work  are  extant. 

SENECA  (L.  Annoeus,  vide  infr.).  Ten  of  his  tragedies 
are  extant ;  they  are  written  in  iambic  senarii,  interspersed 
with  choral  parts. 

Comic. 

PLAUTUS  (T.  Accius  Plautus),  born  at  Sarsina,  a  village 
in  Umbria,  about  b.  c.  254 ;  died  b.  c.  184,  aged  seventy. 
Works :  twenty-one  Comedies^  of  which  twenty  are  extant. 

TERENCE  (P.  Terentius  Afer),  born  at  Carthage,  b.c. 
195 ;  died  b.  c.  159,  in  his  thirty-sixth  year.  Works :  six 
Comedies,  viz.:  l.Andria;  2.  Hecyra ;  Z.  Heauton-timorou- 
menos,  or  "the  Self-tormentor;"  4.  Eunuchus ;  5.  Phormio ; 
6.  Adelphi,  i.  e.  **  the  Brothers."  He  is  said  to  have  trans- 
lated 108  of  Menander's  Comedies  when  he  went  to  Greece. 


Didactic. 

LUCRETIUS  (T.  Lucretius  Cams),  born  at  Rome,  b.c.  95; 
perished  by  his  own  hand,  b.c.  51,  in  his  forty-fourth  year. 
Work :  De  Berum  Naturd^  in  six  books,  containing  upwards 
of  7400  lines. 


SATIRISTS. 

HORACE,  vide  supra. 

PERSIUS  (A.  Persius  Flaccus),  born  at  Volaterrae,  in 
Eiruria,  4th  of  Dec,  a.  d.  34;  died  24th  of  Nov.,  a.  d.  62, 
aged  twenty-seven.     Work  extant:  six  Satires. 

JUVENAL  (Decimus  Junius  Juvenalis),  born  at  Aquinum, 
in  the  reign  of  Claudius.    Works  extant :  fifteen  Satires. 


ANCIENT    ROMAN    WRITERS.  155 


EPiaRAMMATIST. 

MARTIAL  (Marcus  Valerius  Martialis),  born  at  Bilbilis, 
in  Spain,  a.d.  43.  He  resided  for  thirtj-five  years  at  Rome, 
where  he  obtained  the  patronage  of  the  Emperors  Titus  and 
Domitian.  He  died  at  Bilbilis,  about  a.d.  104.  Work:  Ep% 
grammata,  fourteen  books. 


FABULIST. 

PH^DRUS,  originally  a  slave,  brought  from  Thrace  or 
Macedonia  to  Rome,  but  eventually  became  a  freedman  of 
Augustus.  Work:  The  Fables  of  JEsop,  translated,  with 
some  alterations,  into  Latin  iambics. 


HISTORIANS. 

C^SAR  (Caius  Julius  Csesar),  born  12th  of  July,  b.c.  100; 
murdered  15th  of  March,  b.c.  44,  being  stabbed,  in  the  Senate- 
house,  with  twenty-three  wounds:  among  the  conspirators  was 
his  intimate  friend  Brutus.  Works:  Commentarii  de  Bello 
Gallico,  in  seven  books  (an  eighth  is  added  by  another  hand) ; 
and  Co7nmentarii  de  Bello  Civili,  in  three  books.  The  books 
De  Bello  Alexandrino,  Africano,  and  Hispaniensi,  are  spurious. 

CORNELIUS  NEPOS  flourished  in  the  time  of  Julius 
Csesar.  Work  extant :  Vitce  Excellentium  Imperatorum^  a 
short  biography  of  twenty-two  Grecian  and  two  Carthaginian 
generals. 

SALLUST  (C.  Sallustius  Crispus),  born  b.c.  86,  at  Amiter* 
num,  in  the  Sabini ;  died  b.  c.  34.  Works :  Catillna,  a  his- 
tory of  Catiline's  conspiracy  ;  Jugurtha,  a  history  of  the  wars 
of  the  King  of  Numidia ;  Historice,  fragments  alone  extant. 

LIVY  (Titus  Livius),  born  at  Patavium,  b.c.  59;  died 
A.D.  17.    Work :  History  of  Rome,  from  its  foundation  to  the 


156  ANCIENT    ROMAN    WRITERS. 

death  ofDrusus,  B.C.  9,  in  142  books,  of  which  thirty-five  are 
extant,  viz.,  books  1-10,  and  21-45,  besides  fragments  and 
notices  of  contents  [Epitomce). 

VALERIUS  MAXIMUS  flourished  during  the  tiDie  of  Ti- 
berius.  Work:  Factorum  Dictorumque  Memorabilium  Cibri  ix., 
a  collection  of  facts  and  anecdotes,  &c. 

TACITUS  (Caius  Cornelius  Tacitus),  born  a.d.  57,  at  In- 
teramna(?).  Works:  De  Situ,  Moribus,  Popidisque  Germor 
nice;  Agricola,  a  biography  of  his  father-in-law;  Historice; 
Annates,  a  history  of  Rome,  from  the  death  of  Augustus  to 
that  of  Nero  ;  Diatogus  de  Oratorihus  (?  ). 

CURTIUS  (Quintus  Curtius  Rufus)  flourished  in  the  reign 
of  Vespasian  (? ).  Work :  De  Rebus  Gestis  Alexandri  Magni, 
m  ten  books,  of  which  two  books  are  wanting. 

SUETONIUS  (Caius  Suetonius  Tranquillus)  flourished 
during  the  reigns  of  Trajan  and  Hadrian.  Works  extant: 
Vitce  xii.  Imperatorum ;  De  Ittustribus  Grammaticis ;  De 
Claris  Rhetoribus. 

FLORUS  (Lucius  Annaeus  Florus)  flourished  in  the  time 
of  Trajan  (?).  Work:  Epitoine  de  Rebus  Gestis  Romanorunij 
four  books. 

JUSTIN  (M.  Junianus  Justinus)  flourished  under  the  An- 
tonines.  Work :  An  abridgment  of  the  Historice  Fhilippicce 
of  Trogus  Pompeius,  in  forty-four  books. 

EUTROPIUS  flourished  under  Constantino  and  Valens. 
Work  :  Breviarium  Histoj^ice  Romance,  in  ten  books. 


ORATOE,  &c. 

CICERO  (Marcus  Tullius  Cicero),  born  B.C.  106;  murdered 
B.  c.  43,  at  the  instigation  of  the  Triumviri.  Works :  of  Ora- 
tions, fifty-six  are  extant.  Rhetorical  works :  De  Inventione, 
or  Rlietorica ;  De  Oratore,  three  books ;  Brutus,  or  De  Claris 
Oratoribus ;  Orator  ad  Brutiim,  or  De  Optimo  Genere  Dicendi; 
Topica,  a  work  on  evidence;  De  Partione  Oratoria;  De  Optimo 
Genere  Oratorum.    Philosophical  works:  De  Republica,  in  six 


ANCIENT    KOMAN    WRITERS.  157 

books,  of  which  Somnium  Scipionis  has  been  preserved;  De 
Legihus,  three  books ;  Academica,  divided  first  into  two,  and 
afterwards  into  four  books,  one  of  which,  and  a  fragment  of 
the  second,  we  possess;  De  Finihus  Bonorum  et  Malorum,  five 
books  ;  Disputationes  Tusculance,  five  books ;  De  Natura  Deo- 
mm,  three  books ;  De  Divinatione,  two  books ;  De  Fato,  a 
fragment ;  Cato  Major  sive  de  Senectuie  ;  Lcelius  sive  de  Ami' 
cUia;  Paradoxa  Stoicorum;  De  Officiis,  three  books.  Epis- 
tolary writings :  Epistolce  ad  Diversos,  sixteen  books ;  Epis- 
iolce  ad  T.  Pomponium  Atticimi,  sixteen  books ;  Epistolce  ad 
Quintum  Frairem,  three  books. 


EPISTOLARY  AVRITERS. 

ATTICUS  (Titus  Pomponius  Atticus),  born  b.c.  109 ;  died 
in  his  seventy-seventh  year,  b.  c.  32.     He  corresponded  with 

CICERO  (vide  supra). 

PLINY  (Caius  Plinius  Csecilius  Secundus,  surnamed  the 
Younger),  born  a.d.  61;  died  a.d.  114.  Work:  Epistolo^,  in 
ten  books.  Of  his  Orations,  the  Panegyricus  on  Trajan  is 
alone  extant. 


WRITERS  ON  PHILOSOPHICAL  SUBJECTS,  &c. 

SENECA  (Lucius  Annoeus  Seneca),  born  about  a.d.  1; 
died  A.D.  65,  in  the  reign  of  Nero.  Works:  124  Letters  on 
Philosophical  Subjects  ;   Qucestiones  NaturaleSt  seven  books. 

CICERO  (vide  supra). 

Natural  History. 

PLINY  (Caius  Plinius  Secundus  Major,  the  Elder),  born 
A.  D.  23  ;  died  in  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  a.  d.  79,  aged  fifty- 
six.     Work :  Historia  Naturalis,  in  thirty-seven  books,  alone 
remains  of  his  numerous  writings. 
14 


158  ANCIENT    ROMAN    WRITERS. 

Agriculture. 

CATO  (Marcus  Porcius  Cato  Censorius),  born  B.C.  234; 
died  B.C.  149,  aged  eighty-jfive.  Works:  A  Treatise  on  Agrir 
culture,  the  most  ancient  Latin  prose  work  extant ;  Origines, 
a  history  of  Rome  from  B.C.  753-151. 

VARRO  (Marcus  Terentius  Varro),  born  B.C.  116;  died 
B.C.  28.  Works:  De  Lingua  Latina,  a  fragment;  De  Re 
Rustica,  a  fragment  alone  extant. 

COLUMELLA  (Lucius  Junius  Moderatus  Columella),  con- 
temporary of  Seneca.     Work :  De  Re  Rustica, 

Architecture. 

VITRUYIUS  (Marcus  Vitruvius  Pollio),  born  at  Verona; 
flourished  in  the  time  of  Caesar  and  Augustus.  Work:  De 
Architectura,  in  ten  books. 

Medicine. 

CELSUS  (Aulus  Cornelius  Celsus)  flourished  in  the  reigns 
of  Augustus  and  Tiberius.  Work:  De  Medicina,  in  eight 
books. 

Grammar  and   Criticism. 

QUINTILIAN  (Marcus  Fabius  Quintilianus),  born  a.d.  40; 
died  about  a.d.  118.  Works:  Institiitiones  Oratories,  in  twelve 
books ;  a  collection  of  Declamations  is  by  some  also  ascribed 
to  Quintilian. 

AULUS  GELLIUS  flourished  in  the  time  of  the  Anto- 
nines.  Work :  Nodes  Atticce,  in  twenty  books,  of  which  the 
eighth  is  wanting. 


SCHOOLS  OF  ANCIENT  PHILOSOPHY. 


T.  The  IONIC  SCHOOL,  founded  by  Thales,  from 

WHICH    SPRUNG  : 

1.  THE  SOCRATIC  SCHOOL,  founded  by  Socrates. 
Disciples :  Xenophon,  ^schines,  Phgedo,  Euclid,  Plato,  Alci- 
biades,  &c. 

2.  CYRENAIC  SECT,  founded  by  Aristippus.  Flou- 
rished about  B.C.  370. 

3.  MEGARIC  or  ERISTIC  SCHOOL,  founded  by  Euclid 
of  Megara,  B.C.  399. 

4.  ELI  AC  or  ERETRIAC  SCHOOL,  founded  about  b.c. 
395,  by  Phcedo  of  Elis,  whose  doctrines  were  similar  to  those 
of  Socrates. 

5.  THE  ACADEMIC  SECT,  founded  by  Plato. 

G.  THE  PERIPATETIC  SECT,  founded  by  Aristotle, 
succeeded  by  Theophrastus,  Straton,  Lycon,  Ariston,  &c. 

7.  THE  CYNIC  SECT,  founded  by  Antisthenes.  Dis- 
ciples :  Diogenes  Crates,  and  Hipparchia,  his  wife. 

8.  THE  STOIC  SECT,  founded  by  Zeno,  succeeded  by 
Cleanthes,  Ariston,  Antipater,  &c. 

11.  The  ITALIC  SCHOOL,  founded  by  Pythagoras, 

FROM    WHICH    sprung: 

1.  THE  ELEATIC  SCHOOL,  founded  by  Xenophanes. 
Flourished  B.C.  540-500.  Disciples:  Parmenides,  ZenO; 
both  of  Elea,  in  Italy,  Democritus,  Protagoras,  etc. 

2.  THE  HERACLITEAN  SECT,  founded  by  Hera 
0  lit  us.     Flourished  B.C.  513. 

3.  THE  EPICUREAN  SECT,  founded  by  Epicurus. 

4.  THE  SCEPTIC  SECT,  founded  by  Pyrrhon. 

(159) 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  ATHENS. 


ATHENE,  the  Capital  of  Attica,  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Cecrops,  about  B.C.  1556;  it  was  called  from  its 
founder  Cecropia,  and  afterwards  Athenae  (at  'AQrjvat),  in 
honour  of  Minerva  {'AOrivrj),  the  protectress  of  the  city.  It 
was  divided  into  two  parts,  1.  THE  ACROPOLIS,  or  UPPER 
CITY  (dxportoXtj,  Kfxportta,  ^  avw  7toU$),  and  THE  LOWER 
CITY  {y^  xdtut  TtoUi).  The  Acropolis  or  Citadel  was  a 
steep  rock,  about  150  feet  high,  1150  feet  long,  and  500  feet 
broad,  surrounded  by  a  wall,  and  approached  from  the  "VY.  by 
the  Propylsea  {ripoTiv^aLa),  a  colonnade  of  Pentelic  marble. 
The  summit  was  covered  with  temples,  statues,  &c.  The 
most  beautiful  of  the  temples  were,  1.  the  Parthenon, 
sacred  to  Athene,  with  a  statue  of  the  goddess  by  Phidias, 
thirty-seven  feet  high,  and  carved  in  gold  and  ivory.  2. 
Erechtheum,  or  temple  of  Neptune,  with  the  temple  of 
Athene  Polias  and  the  Pandroseum.  Between  the  Par- 
thenon and  Erechtheum  stood  the  colossal  bronze  statue 
of  Athene  Promachos  (seventy  feet  high,  whose  helmet  and 
spear  were  first  visible  from  the  sea),  cast  by  Phidias. 

THE  LOWER  CITY  was  built  in  the  plain  round  the 
Acropolis,  and  was  surrounded  by  walls ;  the  chief  gates  of 
which  were:  the  Thriasian  or  Dipylon,  leading  from  the 
inner  to  the  outer  Ceramicus  and  the  Academia ;  and  the 
Pi  roe  an  gate,  leading  to  the  Piraeeus.  The  chief  districts: 
Colyttus,  on  the  N.  of  the  Acropolis;  Melite,  on  the  E. ; 
Limn 96,  on  the  S. ;  Ceramicus  (Kspaactxoj,  or  the  "Potter^s 
Quarter'^),  in  the  W. 

Hills;  Areiopagus,  W.,  and  Pnyx,  S.W.,  of  the  Acro- 
polis. 

(160) 


TOPOGRAPHY    OF    ATHENS.  161 

The  chief  buildings  of  the  Lower  City  were;  1.  The 
Temple  of  Olympian  Zeus  ('OTiu^rttftov),  founded  by 
Pisistratus ;  2.  The  Temple  of  Theseus  ((dr^OElov),  erected 
by  Conon,  and  was  used  as  a  sanctuary  for  slaves ;  S.UdvOsov, 
a  temple  dedicated  to  all  the  gods,  a  magnificent  building, 
supported  by  120  marble  pillars;  4.  The  Temple  of  the 
Eight  Winds  (vide  page  172),  surmounted  by  a  weather- 
cock; 5.  The  Odeum  ('QSftoi/),  built  by  Pericles,  and  origin- 
ally intended  for  m^usical  festivals,  but  afterwards  used  as  a 
court  of  justice ;  6.  The  Bouleuterion,  Bov'KsvtYiptov,  or 
Senate-house;  7.  The  Prytaneum,  U.pvtavHov,  or  place 
of  assembly  of  the  Prytanes  (vide  Gr.  Antiq.);  8.  The  Great 
Theatre  of  Dionysus,  S.E.  of  the  Acropolis;  9.  Por- 
ticoes (Sroot),  or  covered  walks,  in  which  seats  (g'liSpat) 
were  placed.  The  Porticoes  were  sometimes  adorned  with 
paintings  by  the  best  masters,  as,  10.  The  Pcecile  [atoa 
rioixi%ri),  N.W.  of  the  Acropolis,  adorned  with  frescoes  of  the 
battle  of  Marathon;  11.  'Ayopat,  corresponding  to  the  For  a 
at  Rome,  places  both  for  public  assembly  and  all  matters  of 
traffic  and  public  business;  12.  The  Pnyx  (lli/i;!),  W.  of 
the  Acropolis,  the  place  in  which  the  ancient  assemblies 
were  held. 

Without  the  City:  TheAcademia,  where  Plato  taught; 
The  Cynosarges,  where  Antisthenes  taught;  The  Ly- 
ceum, where  Aristotle  instructed  his  disciples,  the  Peri- 
patetics; The  Stadium,  for  public  games. 


14* 


TOFOGEAPHY   OF   KOME. 


ROMA,  the  Capital  of  Italy,  is  said  to  have  been  a  colony 
fr^m  Alba  Longa,  and  to  have  been  founded  by  Komulus, 
B.C.  753.  The  original  city  comprised  only  the  Mons  Pala- 
tinus ;  it  was  surrounded -by  vralls,  which  followed  the  line 
of  the  Pomoerium,  a  kind  of  symbolical  wall,  the  course  of 
which  was  marked  by  stone  pillars.  On  the  increase  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  city,  one  hill  after  another  was  occupied, 
to  the  number  of  seven  (vide  pages  28,  1G8).  Servius  Tullius 
divided  the  city  into  four  region es  or  districts,  which  re- 
mained unchanged  till  the  time  of  Augustus,  who  divided 
the  city  into  fourteen  regiones. 

THE  FORA  AND  CAMPI.  The  Forum  was  an  open 
space  of  ground  of  an  oblong  form,  in  which  the  people  met  for 
the  transaction  of  business,  or  used  for  markets.  The  prin- 
cipal Fora  at  Rome  were:  1.  Forum  Romanum,  or  simply 
the  Forum  (the  narrow  or  upper  end  of  which  was  occupied 
by  the  Comitium) ;  it  was  surrounded  by  public  buildings, 
and  adorned  with  statues  of  celebrated  men,  &c.  2.  Forum 
Julii  or  Csesaris.  3.  Forum  Augusti.  4.  Forum  Tra- 
jan i.  The  CAMPI  were  large  open  spaces  of  ground 
covered  with  grass,  planted  with  trees,  and  adorned  with 
works  of  art.  The  chief  was  the  Campus  Marti  us,  or 
"  Plain  of  Mars,''  where  the  Roman  youth  exercised. 

There  are  said  to  have  been  215  streets  in  Rome ;  Yiaa 
and  Vici  were  the  broad  streets,  and  Angiportus  the  narrow 
streets.  The  finest  street  was  the  Via  Sacra,  from  the 
Colosseum  to  the  Forum.  The  Suburra  was  a  crowded  dis- 
trict, between  the  Esquiline,  Quirinal,  and  Yiminal. 

(162) 


TOPOGRAPHY    OF    ROME.  163 

TEMPLES.  Of  these,  there  are  said  to  have  been  400  in 
Rome,  the  chief  of  which  were:  1.  Templum  Jovis,  or 
Capitolium,  built  on  the  Capitoline  Hill.  It  was  com- 
menced by  Tarq.  Prisons,  and  dedicated  B.C.  507.  Three 
times  was  it  burnt  down,  and  as  often  rebuilt,  but  with  far 
greater  splendour  than  before,  by  Domitian,  about  a.d.  81. 
The  building  Avas  in  the  form  of  a  square,  200  feet  each  side ; 
it  was  approached  by  100  steps,  and  contained  three  temples 
(cellce),  consecrated  to  Juno,  Jupiter,  and  Minerva.  In  the 
building  were  kept  the  Sibylline  Books,  and  there  the  Con- 
suls, upon  entering  office,  sacrificed,  and  took  their  vows. 
THE  ARX,  or  Citadel  of  Rome,  was  situated  near  the 
Capitol,  on  the  N.  summit  of  the  Capitoline  Hill.  2.  The 
Pantheum,  ii^the  Campus  Martins,  built  by  Agrippa, 
B.  c.  27 ;  it  is  still  extant,  and  used  as  a  Christian  church 
(Santa  Maria  delta  Botonda).  It  is  the  largest  circular  build- 
ing of  antiquity,  and  in  form  resembles  the  Colosseum,  Re- 
gent's Park.  The  numerous  temples  were  dedicated  chiefly 
to  Jupiter,  Juno,  Mars,  Janus,  Saturn,  Fortuna,  &c. 

The  principal  of  the  CIRC  I,  or  places  for  chariot  and  horse- 
racing,  was  the  Circus  Maximus,  between  the  Palatine 
and  Aventine  Hills ;  it  is  said  to  have  contained  seats  for 
385,000  persons. 

Among  the  THEATRES,  the  chief  were:  1.  The  Thea- 
trum  Pompeii,  the  first  stone  theatre  built  in  Rome 
(B.C.  55);  2.  Th.  Marcelli.  Of  the  AMPHITHEATRES, 
the  Amphiteatrum  Flavium,  or  Colosseum,  was  the 
most  magnificent ;  it  was  commenced  by  Vespasian  and  com- 
pleted by  Titus,  a.  d.  80 ;  it  furnished  seats  capable  of  con- 
taining 87,000  persons. 

THERMiE.  These  buildings  were  distinct  from  the  com- 
mon Balnese  or  baths,  as,  besides  baths,  they  contained  places 
for  athletic  games  and  sports,  public  halls,  porticoes,  libraries, 
&c. ;  the  chief  were:  1.  Thermae  Antonini;  2.  Th.  Dio- 
cletiani;  3.  Th.  Constantini;  4.  Th.  Caracallae. 

THE  BASILICiE  were  numerous  at  Rome ;  they  were 
buildings  Avhich  served  as  courts  of  law,  or  places  of  meeting 
for  merchants   and  men  of  business      THE   PORTICOES 


1G4  TOPOGRAPHY    OF    ROME. 

were  covered  walks,  supported  by  columns,  used  as  places  of 
recreation  or  of  public  business. 

Of  THE  CURI^  or  Senate-houses,  the  chief  was  Curia 
Ilostilia,  in  the  Forum ;  it  was  used  as  the  place  of  assem- 
bly for  the  senate  until  the  time  of  Cjesar.  The  other  chief 
buildings  were  the  Palaces  (e.  g.  Palatium,  Domus  Aurea 
Kdronis ) ;  the  Triumphal  Arches  ( Arcus  Fabianus,  Ar, 
Titi,  Ar.  Ti^ajani,  Ar.  Constant ini) ;  Aqueducts  (Aqua 
Appia,  Aq.  Marcia,  Aq.  Julia^  Aq,  Claudia)  \  Monuments 
[Mausoleum  Augusti,  M.  Hadriani).  Of  the  Columns  were: 
Col.  Rostrata,  in  the  Forum,  in  honour  of  the  naval  vic- 
tory of  Duilius,  B.C.  260;  Col.  Trajani,  117  feet  high,  now 
surmounted  by  a  statue  of  St.  Peter.  ^ 

Of  THE  ROADS  leading  out  of  Rome,  the  principal  were : 

1.  Via  Appia,  from  the  Porta   Capena  to   Brundusium; 

2.  Via  Flaminia,  or  Great  North  Road  from  the  Porta 
Flaminia;  3.  Via  Aurelia,  the  Great  Coast  Road  through 
Etruria  and  Liguria  from  the  Porta,  Janiculensis. 


GEEEK  AND  ROMAN  DIVISION 
OF  TIME. 

GREEK. 

In  early  times,  the  Greeks  divided  their  years  by  the  recur- 
rence of  the  seasons,  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  constella- 
tions Orion,  the  Pleiades,  &c.  Afterwards,  having  adopted 
the  lunar  month  of  about  twenty-nine  days  and  thirteen 
hours  as  a  division  of  time,  they  endeavoured  to  adjust  this 
to  the  solar  year  of  365  days  five  hours  and  forty-nine 
minutes,  so  that  the  seasons  should  regularly  occur  at  the 
same  periods  of  the  calendar  year,  and  that  the  end  of  the 
year  should  not  be  in  the  middle  of  a  month.  As  the  twelve 
lunar  months  contain  only  354  days,  intercalary  or  additional 
months  {inyjvB^  ifiiSoUixov)  were  inserted  to  make  up  the  defi- 
ciency. The  errors  of  the  early  calendars  of  Thales,  Solon, 
and  Cleostratus,  were  rectified  by  Me  ton,  who,  B.C.  432, 
introduced  a  cycle  of  nineteen  years,  at  the  end  of  which 
period  the  position  of  the  earth,  with  reference  to  the  sun 
and  moon,  became  the  same.  Calippus,  and  after  him  the 
celebrated  Hip  parch  us  (c.  B.C.  150),  corrected  the  slight 
inaccuracies  of  Meton's  system.  The  cycle  of  Hipparchus 
consisted  of  304  years,  with  112  intercalary  months. 

The  twelve  Attic  months  contained  thirty  and  twenty-nine 
days  alternately ;  the  former  termed  full  {rfkvjpH^),  the  latter 
hollow  [xoI'Kol),  months.  Their  names,  derived  from  the  va- 
rious festivals  held  in  them,  were,  ^Exatoixj5aiujv,  MstaysttwCijVj 
Bor^byiOiitCjv ,    M.atfiaxtfjpidiV,    IlDai^f^'^^'S    ^AvdEatonptutv,    YloasLdsCjv, 

I  The  following  rough  memorial  liffes  will  aid  the  memory  in  remeni 
bering  the  Attic  months  : — 

'Ex  — Mfra — rsLTvv —  Borj' — Ilva — Matf.idxtijpv — TloasL^dv 
Tafji — AvOsot — '~'E'fJa,^rj   \\  Mdvvi%v — ©apy  —  Xxipoi>dp. 

(165) 


166  GREEK   AND   ROMAN   DIVISION   OF   TIME. 

The  days  of  the  month  were  divided  into  three  decades  or 
sets  of  ten  days,  numbered  from  one  to  ten :  thus  the  first  of 
each  decade  (i.  e.  our  first,  eleventh,  and  tvrenty-first)  was 
termed  respectively,  Ttputtt]  (sc.  3;w£pa),  tatd/jLEvov  or  dij^o^ievov 
[fxi^vos] — rtpwT»7  irti  bixa  or  fisaovvto^ — Ttputtr]  irt'  Hxad^c,  ^OCvovto^y 
"Kriyovtos,  &c.  But  in  the  last  decade  the  days  were  often 
reckoned  backwards ;  thus  the  first  was  called  5f  xa-r'jy  ^Bivov- 
roj,  &c.  The  first  day  of  the  month  was  also  termed  Noi^^j^rta 
(new  moon),  the  last  hri  xai  via,  as  belonging  both  to  the  old 
and  the  neio  month. 

The  three  Homeric  divisions  of  the  day  were :  1.  jjioj 
(morning),  afterwards  divided  into  ytpwt,  and  TfkvjOovarj^  tjJ^ 
dyopaj ;  2.  fiiaov  ^^ap  or  p-iaTqix^^la  (midday)  ;  3.  htbjri  (after- 
noon), afterwards  divided  into  Ttpcota  and  o^^ta. 

At  Athens  the  years  were  called  after  the  chief  Archon 
(fTtcowjUoj),  at  Sparta  after  the  first  Ephor,  at  Argos  after  the 
priestess  of  Juno.  So  at  Carthage  after  the  Sufietes,  at  Crete 
after  the  Proto-cosmus,  and  at  Rome  after  the  Consuls. 

Timasus  of  Sicily  (c.  B.C.  260)  introduced  the  calculation 
by  Olympiads,  or  periods  of  four  years,  commencing  from 
B.C.  776  (vide  Chronology).  Thus,  B.C.  775  would  be  the 
second  year  of  the  first  Olympiad,  b.c.  772  the  second  Olym- 
piad, &c.  But  as  the  Attic  year  began  at  the  summer  solstice, 
with  the  month  Hecatombaeon  (June  and  July),  the  first  half 
of  the  first  Olympiad  would  be  the  latter  half  of  b.  c.  776,  and 
the  latter  half  of  the  Olympiad  the  first  of  b.  c.  775. 


ROMAN. 


The  Roman  year  was  prohdbly  at  first  divided  into  ten 
months,  beounning  with  March.  To  this  division,  which  is 
ascribed  to  Romulus,  Numa  is  said  to  have  added  the  two 
months  January  and  Februar}^  to  have  assigned  355  days  to 
the  year,  and  to  have  adopted  a  cycle  similar  to  Meton's 
Julius  Caesar,  b.  c.  46,  employed  Sosigenes,  of  Alexandria, 


GREEK   AND   ROMAN   DIVISION    OF   TIME.  167 

and  Flavius,  a  scribe,  to  revise  the  calendar.  The  intercalary 
months  were  set  aside,  the  solar  year  was  composed  of  365 
days,  and  a  leap-year  inserted  every  four  ^^ears.  But,  as  this 
did  not  provide  for  the  accumulation  of  the  excess  of  minutes 
and  seconds.  Pope  Gregory,  a.d.  1582,  ordered  ten  days,  be- 
tween Oct.  4  and  15,  in  that  year  to  be  omitted.  This  "  new 
style''  was  not  recognized  in  England  till  a.d.  1752.  The 
"old,''  or  "Julian  style,"  is  still  used  in  Russia. 

The  names  of  the  Roman  months  are  Januarius,  Februa- 
rius,  Martins,  Aprilis,  Mains,  Julius,  Quintilis  and  Sextilis 
(changed  to  Julius  and  Augustus,  in  honour  of  the  two  first 
Caesars),  September,  October,  November,  December.  The 
number  of  days  in  each  month  was  the  same  as  our  own ; 
but  they  were  divided  into  Calends,  Nones,  and  Ides.  The 
Calends  were  the  first  of  every  month.  In  March,  May, 
July,  and  October,  the  Nones  fell  on  the  7th,  in  the  other 
months  on  the  5th.  The  Ides  were  always  eight  days  after 
the  Nones,  i.  e.  on  the  13th  or  15th.  If  the  day  of  the  month 
was  not  one  of  these  three  divisions,  it  was  expressed  by  its 
distance  from  the  following  Calends,  Nones,  or  Ides,  as  the 
case  might  be.  Thus,  the  31st  of  December  was  termed 
pridie  (the  day  before)  Calendas  Januarias.  But,  as  the 
Romans  reckoned  in  hotli  the  days  to  and  from  which  they 
calculated,  Dec.  30  would  be  the  tliird  day  before  the  Calends 
of  January,  usually  expressed  ante  diem  tertium  (or  a.  d.  iii.) 
Kal.  Jan.  The  Romans  (as  well  as  the  Greeks)  used  water- 
clocks  {clepsydrce)  and  sun-dials  [solai^ia)  to  measure  the 
divisions  of  the  day. 

The  Consular  aera  was  used  in  public  affairs.  In  the  time 
of  the  Caesars,  the  sera  "  ab  urbe  condita"  (A.  U.  C),  from 
the  founding  of  Rome,  dated  by  Yarro  b.c.  753  (by  Cato, 
B.  c.  752),  was  employed  by  historians  and  others. 


MISCELLANEA. 


HILLS   OF  ROME. 

1.  Palatinus,  first  occupied  by  the  Latins. 

2.  Capitolinus,  occupied  by  the  Sabines,  afterwards  united 
to  the  Latins. 

3.  Coelius,  occupied  by  the  Etruscans. 

4.  Quirinalis,  occupied  by  the  Sabines,  afterwards  united 
to  the  Latins. 

5.  Aventinus,  added  by  Ancus  Martins,  who  also  erected 
a  fort  on  Janiculum,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tiber. 

6.  Esquilinus,  added  by  Servius  Tullius. 

7.  Viminalis,  added  by  Servius  Tullius. 


KINGS   OF  ROME. 


B.  C.       B.  c. 

1. 

Romulus, 

reigned  753—716,  37  years 

2. 

Numa  Pompilius, 

"       715—672, 43     " 

3. 

TuUus  Hostilius, 

"       672—640,  32     " 

4. 

Ancus  Marcius, 

"       640—616,  24     " 

5. 

L.  Tarquinius  Priscus, 

'«       616—578,  38     " 

6. 

Servius  Tullius, 

^^       578—534, 44     " 

7. 

L.  Tarquinius  Superbus, 

'*       534—510, 25     « 
(168) 

MISCELLANEA.  169 

TWELVE    C^SARS. 


1.  Julius, 

B.C.  45 — 

B.C.  44. 

2.  Augustus, 

"    80— 

A.D.14. 

3.  Tiberius, 

A.D.14— 

"    37. 

4.  Caligula, 

"    37— 

"    41. 

i).  Claudius, 

"    41— 

"    54, 

6.  Nero, 

"    54— 

"    68. 

7.  Galba, 

"    68— 

"    69. 

8.  Otho, 

Jan. 

15, 

"     69— Apr. 

16, 

"    69. 

9.  Vitellius, 

Jan. 

2, 

"    69— Dec. 

22, 

"    69. 

10.  Vespasian, 

Dec. 

22, 

«     69— 

"    79. 

11.  Titus, 

"    79— 

"    81. 

12,  Domitian, 

"    81— 

"    96. 

SEVEN  WONDERS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

1.  The  Colossus  of  Rhodes. 

2.  The  Sepulchre  of  Mausolus,  king  of  Caria. 

3.  The  Palace  of  Cyrus. 

4.  The  Pyramids  of  Egypt. 

5.  The  Statue  of  Jupiter  at  Olympia. 

6.  The  Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus. 

7.  The  Walls  and  Hanging  Gardens  of  Babylon, 


SEVEN  SAGES  OF  GREECE. 

1.  Thales,  of  Miletus. 

2.  Pittacus,  of  Mitylene. 

3.  Bias,  of  Priene. 

4.  Solon,  legislator  of  Athens. 

5.  Cleobulus,  of  Rhodes. 

6.  Periander  of  Corinth  (some  say  Myson),  of  Laconia. 

7.  Chilon,  of  Sparta. 

15 


170  MISCELLANEA. 


THE  TWELVE  LABOURS  OF  HERCULES. 

1.  The  Fight  with  the  Nemean  Lion. 

2.  The  Fight  with  the  HydraofLerna,  near  Argos. 

3.  The  Capture  of  the  Brazen- footed  Stag  of  Arcadia. 

4.  The  Destruction  of  the  Erymanthian  Wild  Boar. 

5.  Cleansing  the  Stables  of  Augeas,  king  of  Elis. 

6.  The  Destruction  of  the  Stymphalian  Birds. 

7.  The  Capture  of  the  Cretan  Bull. 

8.  The  Capture  of  the   Mares  of  Diomedes,   king  of 
Thrace. 

9.  The  Seizure  of  the  Girdle  ofHippolytc,  queen  of 
the  Amazons. 

10.  The  Capture  of  the  Oxen  of  Geryon. 

11.  Obtaining  the  Golden  Apples  of  the  Hesperides. 

12.  Bringing  the  Three-headed  Dog  Cerberus  from  the 
lower  regions. 


THE   NINE   MUSES. 

1.  Clio,  muse  of  History. 

2.  Euterpe,  Lyric  Poetry. 

3.  Thalia,  Comedy. 

4.  Melpomene,  Tragedy. 

5.  Terpsichore,  Choral  Dance. 

6.  Erato,  Erotic,  or  Amorous  Poetry. 

7.  Polyhymnia,  Rhetoric,  Eloquence. 

8.  Urania,  Astronomy. 

9.  Calliope,  Epic  Poetry. 


THE   THREE   GRACES. 


Aglaia  (Splendour). 
Euphrosyne  (Joy). 
Thalia  (Pleasure). 


MISCELLANEA.  lit 

THE  THREE  RORJE,  OR  GODDESSES  OF  THK 
ORDER  OF  NATURE,  &c.  (Hesiod). 

Eunomia  (Good  Order). 
Dike  (Justice).  i 
Irene  (Peace). 


THE   THREE   FATES. 

Clotho, 

Lachesis,  J-  for  attributes,  vide  Parcae. 

Atropos, 


THE   THREE   FURIES. 

Alecto. 

Megaera. 

Tisiphone. 


THE  THREE  JUDGES  OF  HELL. 

Minos,  formerl^^  king  of  Crete. 

Rhadamanthus,  son  of  Zeus  and  brother  of  Minos. 

^acus,  son  of  Zeus,  famed  for  his  Justice  and  Piety. 


THE  FIVE  RIVERS  OF  HELL. 

Styx. 

Acheron. 

Cocytus. 

Phlegethon. 

Lethe. 


172  MISCELLANEA. 


THE  WINDS. 

N.,  'Artapxtla^,  Sepiemtrio, 

N.E.,  Kaixla^,  Bopias  (usually  N.  wind),  AquUo, 

E.,  ' Anr^lA^^;r^^,  Sabsolanus. 

S.E.,  Evpoj,  EifTUs,  Vulturnus. 

S.,  NoTOf  (prop.  S.W.),  Auster. 

S.W.,  At4/,  Afrkus. 

W.,  Zf'^vpoj  (prop.  N.W.),  Zephijms,  Favonius. 

N.W.,  'Apyfor?7^,  Sxtpwv,  (7a?^5  or  Cmtrus. 

^ETricsiai,  northerly  winds  which  blew  in  the  summer. 

lapyx,  W.  or  N.W.  wind,  which  blew  from  Apulia. 

Atilbulus  (Hor.)  a  scorching  wind  of  Apulia-. 


THE  ROMAN   CALENDAR. 

For  the  purposes  of  administering  justice  and  holding  the 
assemblies,  all  the  days  of  the  year  were  divided  by  the 
Romans  into  dies  fasti  and  nefasti.  The  former  {dies  fasti) 
were  the  days  on  which  the  praetor  was  allowed  to  administer 
justice ;  they  were  marked  in  the  calendar  by  the  letter  F. ; 
the  latter  [dies  nefasti)  were  days  on  which  neither  the  courts 
of  justice  nor  comitia  were  allowed  to  be  held.  Some  days, 
however,  might  be  partly  fasti  as  well  as  nefasti,  in  which 
case  they  were  marked  in  the  calendar  thus,  Fp.  (i.  e.  fasius 
jprimo),  or  Np.  (i.  e.  nefastus  primo). 

The  Nundince  (ninth  days)  were  originally  market-days,  on 
which  the  country-people  came  to  Rome  to  sell  the  produce 
of  their  labour.  The  nundinsD  were  ferim  or  sacred  days 
for  the  popiduSf  while  they  were  real  business  days  for  the 


MISCELLANEA. 


17t 


plebeians  [dies  fasti),  for  many  years,  until  the  dies  fasti 
and  nundinse  coincided. 


Davs 

Mai 

.,  Mav,  July,  1 

Jan 

,  Aus:.,  Dec,  \ 

Apr 

,  June,  Sep.,  1 

B'eb.  28  days,  ia 

of  the 
n»*^nth.. 

Oct.,  ai'days.' 

3L  days. 

Nov.,  30  days. 

Leap-year  29. 

1 

Kalendis 

Kalendis 

Kalendis 

Kalendis 

2 

6] 

5     Ante 

4  -)  Ante 
3  /  Nonas 

4)  Ante 
3  j  Nonas 

4  \  Ante 
3  /  Nonas 

3 

4 

4  ("Nonas 

Pridie  Nonas 

Pridie  Nonas 

Pridie  Nonas 

5 

3j 

Nonis 

Nonis 

Nonis 

6 

Pridie  Nonas 

8- 

8] 

^T 

7 

Nonis 

7 

7 

7 

8 

81 

6 

Ante 

6 

Ante 

6 

Ante 

9 

7 

5 

Idus 

5  " 

Idus 

5  ' 

Idus 

10 

6 

Ante 

4 

4 

4 

11 

5  ■ 

Idus 

3J 

3J 

3J 

12 

4 

Pridie  Idus 

Pridie  Idus 

Pridie  Idus 

13 

3j 

Idibus 

Idibus 

Idibus 

14 

Pridie  Idus 

19~ 

18-^ 

16- 

15 

Idibus 

18 

17 

15 

16 

17- 

1 

17 

16 

14 

17 

16 

16 

15 

13 

18 

15 

15 

"5 

14 

12 

cS 

19 

14 

2 

14 

«M'fci0 

13 

3  9 

11 

20 

13 

ev^'So 

13 

'S-.S 

12 

^'^ 

10 

21 

12 

S^.B 

12 

C3    O 

11 

CS    o 
^3  ;=:! 

9 

'WS 

22 

11 

cJ    O 

11 

10 

8 

^^1 

23 
24 

10 

9 

':3  '- 

10 

9 

9 
8 

/1-.    o 

7 
6 

< 

25 

8 

eS  — -< 

8 

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7 

5 

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26 

27 

7 
6 

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6 

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<< 

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28 

5 

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5 

4 

Pridie  Kalen- 

29 

4 

4 

3 

das  Martias. 

30 

3 

3 

Pridie  Kalen- 

31 

Pridie  Kalen- 

Pridie  Kalen- 

das     (of    the 

das     (of    the 

das     (of    the 

month  follow- 

mo 

nth  follow- 

mo 
ina 

nth  follow- 

ing 

•) 

15* 


GREEK   CHRONOLOGY. 


fl.C. 

1856.  Foundation  of  Argos:  of  Athens,  1556. 
1194.   Trojan  War  commences. 
1124.  uEolic  migration :  Ionic  migration,  1044. 
1104.  Return  of  the  Heraclidte. 

1045.  Death   of  CoDRua,    last  king   of  Athens.      Medon,  first 
Arch on. 
884.  Legislation  of  Lycurgus. 
776.*Coroebus  gains  the  victory  in  the  foot-race  at  the  Olympian 

games. 
743.  First  war  between   the    Messenians   and   LacedoBmonians 
commences :  ends  with  the  defeat  of  the  Messenians,  723. 
734.  Syracuse  founded  by  Archias  of  Corinth. 
683.  Creon,  first  annual  Archon  elected  at  Athens. 
668.  End  of  second  Mesaenian  War ;  begun  685. 
664.  Sea-fight  betiveen  Corinthians  and  Corcyrceans,  most  ancient 

recorded. 
624.  Dracon  legislates  at  Athens. 
605.  Crcesus,  king  of  Lydia,  born  ;    Cirrhrean  or  Sacred  War 

commenced. 
694.*So]on  legislates  at  Athens  ns  Archon. 
586.   Cirrhoians  vanquished  and  Pythian  games  celebrated. 

The  Seven  sages  flourished  about  this  time. 
585.   Death  of  Pekiander. 

572.   War  between  Pisa  and  EHs,  ended  by  subjection  of  Pisasans. 
560.*PisiSTRATUs  usurps  the  government  of  Athens. 
559.  Cyrus  begins  to  reign  in  Persia,  and  the  Median  erapirt 

ends;  it  had  existed  149  years.     Death  of  Solon. 
546.   Sardis  taken  by  Cyrus. 
648.   Temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi  burnt. 
638.   Babylon  token  by  Cyrus. 
535i  Thespis  first  exhibits  tragedy. 
531.  Pythagoras,  the  philosopher,  flourished. 
527.  Death  of  Pis i stratus. 

521.  Death  of  Cambyses,  and  accession  of  Darius  to  the  throne 
of  Persia. 

( 174 ) 


GREEK    CHRONOLOGY.  175 

B.C. 

514.  HiFPARCHUS,  tyrant  of  Athens,  slain.  ^ 

r)10.*HippiAS  flees  from  Athens.     Ten  tribes  instituted  by  Cle- 

ISTHENES. 

499.  lonians  revolt,  and,  assisted  by  the  Athenians,  burn  Sardis. 

•494.  Sixth  and  last  year  of  the  Ionian  revolt.  lomana  defeated  in 
a  naval  engagement  near  Miletus. 

493.  Persians  take  the  islands  Chios,  Lesbos,  and  Tenedos. 
MiLTiADES  comes  from  the  Chersonesus  to  Athens. 

492.  Mardonius,  the  Persian  general,  invades  Europe  and  unites 
Macedonia  to  the  Persian  empire. 

491.  Darius  sends  heralds  to  Greece. 

490.*Datis  and  Artaphernes,  the  Persian  generals,  invade  Eu- 
rope, take  Eretria  in  Euboea,  and  land  in  Attica,  but  are 
defeated  at  Blarathon  by  the  Athenians,  under  Miltiades. 

489.  Miltiades  endeavours  to  conquer  Paros,  but  is  repulsed. 
He  is  accused,  and  being  unable  to  pay  the  fine  is  thrown 
into  prison,  where  he  dies. 

485.  Xerxes,  king  of  Persia,  succeeds  Darius. 

483.  AiiiSTiDES  ostracised. 

481.  TiiEMiSTOCLES  (the  chief  man  at  Athens)  persuades  the 
Athenians  to  build  a  fleet  of  200  ships  to  resist  the  Persians. 

480.  Xerxes  invades  Greece.  Battles  of  Thermopyle  and  Arte- 
misium;  Athens  taken  by  Xerxes;  battle  of  Salamis;  Xerxes' 
fleet  destroyed. 

479.  Mardonius,  the  Persian  general,  winters  in  Thessaly,  in  the 
spring  occupies  Athens,  and  is  defeated  by  the  Greeks  under 
Pausanias  at  the  battle  of  Platma,  in  Sept. ;  Persian  fleet 
defeated  off  Mycale  on  the  same  day. 

478.  Sestos  taken  by  the  Greeks.  History  of  Herodotus  termi- 
nates.    Themjstocles  fortifies  Athens. 

477.*Commenccment  of  the  Athenian  ascendency. 

471.  Themistocles  banished  by  Ostracism  for  ten  years,  and  goes 
to  Argos.    Pausanias  convicted  of  treason  and  put  to  death. 

468.   Mycense  destroyed.     Aristides  dies. 

466.  CiMON  overcomes  the  Persians  at  the  river  Eimjmedon,  in 
Pamphylia.     Themistocles  flies  to  Persia. 

465.  Death  of  Xerxes,  who  is  succeeded  by  Artaxerxes.  Thasos 
revolts;  subdued  by  Cimon,  463. 

464.  Earthquake  at  Sparta.     Helots  and  Messenians  revolt. 

461.  Cimon  marches  to  assist  the  Lacedjemonians ;  his  offer  of 
assistance  declined;  the  Athenian  troops  sent  back,  and 
Cimon  ostracised,  but  recalled,  456.  Pericles  chief  man 
at  Athens. 

460    First  year  of  Egyptian  ivar,  which  lasts  six  years,  till  455. 

457.  Battles  between  Athenians  and  Corinthians ;  Athenians  de- 
feated by  Lacedaemonians  at  Tanagra.      Longi  Muri  com- 


176       '  GREEK    CHRONOLOGY. 

B.C. 

menced  by  the  Athenians  completed,  456,  in  which  year 
battle  of  (Enophyta. 

455.  Messenians  overcome  by  the  Lacedaemonians.  Tolmides, 
the  Athenian  general,  settles  the  Messenians  at  Naupactua, 
and  sails  round  the  Peloponnesus,  inflicting  much  injury. 

450.   Five  years'  truce  between  Athenians  and  Peloponnesians. 

449.  War  with  Persia  renewed.  Cimon  dies.  Athenians  victo- 
rious at  Salamis  in  Cyprus. 

448.  Sacred  War  between  the  DelpMans  and  Phocians  for  posses- 
sion of  the  oracle  and  temple.  The  Lacedaemonians  assist 
the  Delphians,  the  Athenians  the  Phocians. 

447.  The  Athenians  defeated  at  Coronea  by  the  Boeotians, 

445.  Megara  and  Euboea  revolt  from  Athens.  Lacedaemonians 
invade  Attica.  Pericles  recovers  Euboea.  Thirty  years' 
truce  between  Athens  and  Sparta. 

440.  Samos  revolts  from  Athens,  but  is  subdued  by  Pericles. 

439.*ATHENS  AT  THE  HEIGPIT  OF  ITS  GLORY. 

435.  Corinthians  and  Corcyroeans  carry  on  war ;  Corinthians  de^ 
feated  in  a  sea-fight. 

432.  Corcyraeans,  assisted  by  the  Athenians,  repulse  the  Corin- 
thians.    Potidaea  revolts  from  Athens. 

AZl.'^ First  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  War.  The  Thebans  make  an 
attempt  upon  Plataea. — 430.  Plague  rages  at  Athens. — 429. 
Potidoca  surrenders  to  the  Athenians.  Plataea  besieged. 
Pericles  dies.  —  428.  Fourth  year  of  the  war  —  Mitylene 
besieged. — 427.  Mitylene  taken  by  the  Athenians,  and  Les- 
bos recovered,  which  had  revolted  the  year  before.  Plataea 
surrendered  to  the  Peloponnesians.  — 425.  Spartans  in  the 
island  Sphacteria  surrendered  to  Cleon.  Demosthenes  takes 
Pylos.  —424.  NiciAS  ravages  the  coast  of  Laconia,  and  cap- 
tures Cythera.  Brasidas  marches  into  Thrace.  Athenians 
defeated  by  the  Thebans  at  Belium,  at  which  ^Socrates  and 
Xenophon  fought. — 423.  Ninth  year  of  the  war — Truce  for 
one  year.  Thucydides  banished  in  consequence  of  the 
loss  of  Amphipolis. — 422.  Brasidas  and  Cleon  fall  in  bat- 
tle. —  421.  Truce  for  fifty  years  between  the  Athenians  and 
Lacedsemonians. — 419.  Alcibiades  niavches  into  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus.—  418.  Athenians  send  an  twmy  into  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, which  is  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Maniinea.  —  415, 
The  Athenians  send  an  expedition  against  Syracuse,  com- 
manded by  Nicias,  Alcibiades,  and  Lamaciics.  Alcibi- 
ADES  is  recalled,  but  escapes  and  takes  refuge  with  the 
Lacedaemonians. — 414.  Second  campaign  in  Sicily;  the 
Athenians  invest  Syracuse,  to  the  assistance  of  which  Gy- 
Lippus,  the  Lacedaemonian,  is  sent.  —  413.  Attica  invaded 
and  Decelea  fortified  by  the  advice  nf  ALCiRiAnES.     Third 


GREEK    CHRONOLOGY.  177 

B.C 

campaign  in  Sicily  —  Demosthenes,  the  Athenian  general, 
sent  to  the  assistance  of  the  Athenians.  The  Athenian  army 
fund  fleet  destroyed.  Nicias  and  Demosthenes  surrender  and 
are  put  to  death. — 412.  Lesbians  and  Chians  revolt  from 
Athens.  Alcibiades  sent  to  Persia  to  form  a  treaty.  A 
treaty  is  formed  with  Tissaphernes.  The  Athenians  use 
the  1000  talents  deposited  in  the  temple  for  emergencies.  — - 
411.  Twenty-first  year  of  the  war.  Democracy  abolished 
at  Athens,  and  the  council  of  the  P'our  Hundred  appointed. 
Alcibiades  recalled  from  exile  by  the  army  and  by  the  vote 
of  the  Athenian  people.  Mindarus,  the  Lacedaemonian 
admiral,  defeated  at  Cynossema. — 407.  Alcibiades  returns 
to  Athens.  Lysander,  the  Lacedaemonian  general,  defeats 
Antiochus,  the  lieutenant  of  Alcibiades,  by  sea  at  Noiium. 
Alcibiades  banished.  —  406.  Callicratidas  succeeds  Ly- 
sander, and  is  defeated  by  the  Athenian  fleet  ofl^  the  Ar- 
ginusscB  islands.  —  405.  Lysander  defeats  the  Athenians  off 
JEgospotami.,  and  takes  or  destroys  nearly  the  whole  fleet. 

AQ4i.^  Twenty-eighth  and  last  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  War.  Athens 
taken  by  Lysander,  and  the  government  intrusted  to  the 
<*  Thirty  Tyrants,"  who  held  their  power  for  eight  months. 
Death  of  Alcibiades. 

403.  Thrasybulus  and  his  party  obtain  the  Piraeus,  whence  they 
carry  on  war  against  the  "  Ten,"  the  successors  of  the 
**  Thirty,"  and  obtain  possession  of  Athens  in  July;  though 
the  contest  was  not  ended  till  Boedromion  (September). 
Thucydides  returns  to  Athens,  having  been  exiled  twenty 
years. 

401.  Expedition  of  Cyrus  against  his  brother  Artaxerxes  II. : 
Cyrus  is  slain  in  tlie  battle  of  Cunaxa.  The  Greek  allies 
commence  their  return  home,  usually  called  the  "  Return 
of  the  Ten  Thousand."  First  year  of  the  war  of  Lacedce- 
mon  and  Elis,  which  lasted  three  years. 

399  The  Lacedaemonians  send  Thimbron  to  assist  the  Greek 
cities  in  Asia.  Thimbron  superseded  by  Dercyllidas  in 
the  autumn. 

396.  Agesilaus  supersedes  Dercyllidas.     He  winters  at  Ephesus. 

895.  Second  campaign  of  Agesilaus.  He  defeats  Tissapher- 
nes. 

394.  Agesilaus  recalled  from  Asia,  to  march  against  the  Greek 
states  who  had  declared  war  against  Lacedaemon.  He  de- 
feats the  allied  forces  at  Coronea.  Conon,  the  Athenian 
admiral,  gained  a  victory  over  Pisander,  the  Spartnn,  off 
Cnidus.  Xenophon  fights  against  his  country  at  Coronea, 
and  is  banished  from  Athens. 

893.  Sedition  at  Corinth.  Pharnabazus  and  Conon  ravage  th» 
coasts  of  the  Peloponnesus. 


1.78  GREEK    CHRONOLOGY. 

B.C. 

392.  The  Lacedaemonians,  under  Agesilaus,  lay  waste  the  C?j- 
rinthian  territory. 

390.  The  Persians  side  with  the  Lacedaemonians.  Conon  is  im- 
prisoned. Thrasybulus,  the  Athenian  commander,  is  de 
feated  and  shiin  at  Aspendus.  Long  walls  at  Athens  re- 
built. 

387.  The  peace  of  Antalcidas. 

386.   Plataea  restored. 

385.   Mantinea  destroyed  by  Agesipolis. 

382.  First  year  of  the  Olynthian  War :  the  Lacedaemonians  com- 
manded by  Teleutias.  Piicebidas,  the  Spartan  general, 
seizes  Cadmea,  the  citadel  of  Thebes. 

379.  Fourth  and  last  year  of  the  Olynthian  War.  The  Cadmea 
recovered. 

378.  The  Athenians  form  an  alliance  with  Thebes  against  Sparta. 
First  Expedition  of  Agesilaus  into  Boeotia. 

376.  The  Lacedaemonian  fleet  overcome  off  Naxos. 

374.  The  Athenians,  jealous  of  the  Thebans,  conclude  a  peace 
with  the  Spartans.  Timotheus,  the  Athenian,  takes  Cpr- 
cyra.     War  with  Lacedaemon  renewed. 

373.  Lacedaemonians  attempt  to  take  Coreyra,  but  are  defeated. 

371.  Congress  at  Sparta,  and  a  general  peace  concluded,  from 
which  the  Thebans  were  excluded.  Spartans  invade  Boeotia, 
but  are  defeated  by  the  Thebans  under  Epaminondas,  at  the 
battle  of  Leuctra. 

369.  First  invasion  of  the  Peloponnesus  by  Thebans.  Second 
invasion,  368.     Third  invasion,  366. 

365,  War  between  Arcadia  and  Elis.     Battle  of  Olympia^  364. 

362.  Fourth  invasion  of  Peloponnesus  by  Thebans.  Battle  of 
Mantinea.     Epaminondas  slain. 

361.  A  general  peace  with  all  except  the  Spartans.  Agesilaus 
goes  to  Egypt,  but  dies  in  the  winter  while  preparing  to  re- 
turn home. 

360.  War  between  the  Olynthians  and  Athenians,  for  the  posses- 
sion of  Amphipolis. 

359.  Accession  of  Philip  to  the  throne  of  Macedonia  (aet.  twenty- 
three). 

357.  Chios,  Rhodes,  and  Byzantium  revolt  from  Athens.  First 
year  of  the  Social  War.  The  Phociaus  seize  Delf  hi.  Com- 
mencement of  the  Sacred  War. 

356.  Birth  of  Alexander.     Potidcea  taken  by  Philip. 

355.   Third  and  last  j^ear  of  the  Social  War. 

852.  Philip  enters  Thessaly,  expels  the  tyrants  from  Pherw,  and 
makes  himself  master  of  Thessaly.  Attempts  to  pass  Ther* 
mopylce,  but  is  prevented  by  the  Athenians. 

348.    Olynthian  War  continued. 

347.   Olynthus  taken,  and  destroyed  by  Philip. 


GREEK    CHRONOLOGY.  179 

B.C. 

846.  Philip  brings  the  Sacred  War  to  a  close,  after  it  had  lasted 

ten  years. 
343.   TiMOLEON  completes  the  conquest  of  Syracuse,  and  expela 

Dionysius,  having  sailed  from  Corinth  for  this  purpose  in 

344. 
342.  Philip's  expedition  to  Thrace.     Demosthenes'  Orations. 
339.   War  renewed  between  Philip  and  the  Athenians. 
338.  Philip  defeats  the  Athenians  and  Thebans  at  the  hatth  of 

Chceronea,  and  becomes  master  of  Greece. 
336.*Murder   of    Philip,    and    accession    of    Alexander    (jct. 

twenty). 
335.    Thebes  revolts,  and  is  destroyed  by  Alexander. 
334.   War  commenced  against  Persia.      Alexander  defeats   the 

Persian  Satraps  at  the  Gr aniens. 
333.  Alexander    subdues   Lycia,    collects   his   forces    at    Gor- 

dium   in   the   spring,  and  defeats  Darius    at  Issus  in    the 

autumn. 
832.  Alexander  takes  Tyre  and  Gaza,  and  marches  into  Egypt, 

and    orders    Alexandria    to   be   founded.  —  331.    Marches 

througn  Phoenicia  and  Syria,  crosses  the  Euphrates,  and 

defeats  Darius  at  Arbela  or  Gaugamela. 
330.  Darius  slain  by  Bessus. 

329.  Alexander  crosses  the  Oxus  and  Jaxartes,  defeats  the  Scy- 
thians, and  winters  at  Bactra. 
327.  Alexander  conquers  Sogdiana;    marries  Roxana,  a  Bac- 

trian  princess ;  returns  to  Bactria,  and  invades  India. 
326.  Alexander  returns  to  Persia,  and  sends  Nearchus  with  a 

fleet  to  sail  from  the  mouths  of  the  Indus  to  the  Persian 

Gulf. 
325.  Alexander  reaches  Susa ;  and  Babylon,  324. 
323.*Alexander  dies  at  Babylon  in  June,  after  a  reign  of  twelve 

years   and   eight   months.      The   Greek   states   wage    war 

against  Macedonia  {Lamian  War). 
322.  Battle  of  Cranon,  and  end  of  the  Lamian  War. 
316.  Antigonus  becomes  master  of  Asia. 
315.  Seleucus,  Ptolemy,  Cassander,  and  Lysimachus  wage  war 

against  Antigonus. 
312.  Fourth  year  of  the  war.  — 311.  A  general  peace.     Roxana 

murdered.      Seleucus  recovers  Babylon.     ^Era  of  the  Se- 

leucidse  begins. 
308.  Ptolemy's  expedition  to  Greece. 
306.  Ptolemy  defeated  by  Demetrius,  son  of  Antigonus,  in  a 

sea-fight  J  off  Salamis  in  Cyprus. 
803.  War  in    Greece    carried   on  by   Demetrius    against   Cas- 
sander. 
301 .  Battle  of  Ipsus  in  Phrygia :  Lysimachus  and  Seleucus  defeat 

Antigonus  and  Demetrius. 


180  GREEK    CHRONOLOGY. 

B.C. 

295.  Demetrius  takes  Athens,  and,  294,  makes  an  expedition 
into  Peloponnesus.     Becomes  king  of  Macedonia. 

294.  Civil  War  in  Macedonia,  between  Antipater  and  Alex- 
ander. 

290.  Demetrius  takes  Thebes,  and,  289,  carries  on  war  against 
Pyrrhus. 

287.  Demetrius  driven  from  Macedonia,  and  his  kingdom  divided. 

281.  Lysimachus  defeated  and  slain  at  the  battle  of  Corupedion. 

280.*Seleucus  murdered.  Rise  of  the  Achaean  league.  Pyr- 
rhus crosses  into  Italy. 

279.  The  Gauls,  under  Brennus,  invade  Greece. 

273.  Pyrrhus  invades  Macedonia,  and  expels  Antigonus. 

272.  Pyrrhus  dies.     Antigonus  regains  Macedonia. 

227.  Cleomenes,  king  of  Sparta,  wages  war  against  the  Achaean 
League. 

221.  Antigonus  obtains  possession  of  Sparta. 

220.  Social  War  commences.  —  217.  Third  and  last  year  of  the 
war. 

211.  Treaty  between  Rome  and  the  ^tolians. — 208.  Philip 
marches  into  the  Peloponnesus  to  assist  the  Achaeans. 

200.  War  between  Philip  and  Rome.  Philip  defeated  at  the 
battle  of  CynoscephalcBj  197. 

192.  Antiochus  affords  assistance  to  the  ^tolians. 

167.  One  thousand  of  the  principal  Achceans  sent  to  Rome.  Romans 
victorious. 

147.  Macedonia  becomes  a  Roman  province. 

HQ.* Corinth  destroyed  by  Mummius.  Greece  becomes  a  Roman 
province. 


ROMAN   CHRONOLOGY. 


B.C. 

753.*Foundation  of  Rome  on  the  Palatine  Mount,  21st  of  April, 
according  to  the  era  of  Varro,  Cato  gives  b.  c.  752 ;  I'oly- 
bins,  B.C.  750;   Fabius  Pictor,  B.C.  747. 

753-716.  Romulus,  the  first  Roman  King,  reigned  thirty-seven 
years.  Senate  consists  of  100  *'Senatores."  Wars  with 
FidencB  and  Veil. 

715-672.  NuMA  PoMPiLius,  the  second  King,  reigned  forty-three 
years.  Institution  of  religious  ceremonies,  and  regulation 
of  the  year. 

672-640.  TuLLUS  Hostilius,  third  King  of  Rome,  reigned  thirty- 
two  years.  Destruction  of  Alba^  and  removal  of  inhabitants 
to  Rome. 

640-616.  Ancus  Martius,  fourth  King  of  Rome,  reigned  twenty- 
four  years.  Origin  of  Plebeians,  consisting  of  conquered 
Latins  settled  on  the  Aventine.     Ostia  founded. 

616-578.  Lucius  Tarquinius  Priscus,  fifth  King,  reigned  thirty- 
eight  years.  Great  public  works  undertaken.  The  Senate 
increased  to  300. 

578-534.  Servius  Tullius,  sixth  Roman  King,  reigned  forty-four 
years.  Rome  surrounded  by  a  stone  wall.  Institution  of 
thirty  Plebeian  tribes. 

634-510.  Tarquinius  Superbus,  seventh  and  last  Roman  King. 
Expulsion  of  the  Tarquins,  and  establishment  of  a  republic. 

509.*Consuls  elected.  Death  of  Brutus.  First  treaty  with  Car- 
thage. 

608.  War  with  Porsena,  king  of  Clusium. 

501.  Institution  of  Dictatorship  and  Magister  Equitum. 

498.  Battle  of  Lake  Regillus :  Latins  defeated. 

494.  Secession  of  the  Plebs  to  Mons  Sacer. 

493.  War  with  the  Volscians,  and  capture  of  Corioli.—^91.  CoRi- 
olanus  goes  into  exile. 

483.  War  with  Veil. 

477.  Slaughter  of  the  300  Fabii  at  the  Cremera. 

471.  Lex  Publilia  passed. 

465.  War  with  the  ^quians. 

16  (181) 


182  ROMAN     CHRONOLOGY. 

B.C. 

458.  Dictatorship  of  Cincinnatus,  who  relieves  the  Roman  array 

shut  in  by  the  Volscians  and  ^quians. 
454.  Three  Commissioners  sent  to  Greece,  to  prepare  a  code  of 

laws. 
451.*Decemviiii  appointed.      Laws  of  ten  tables  promulj2;ated ; 

increased  by  two,  450. 
449.  Death  of  Virginia.     Decemvirs  deposed. 
445.  Lex  Canuleia  passed,  and  connubium  between  Patricians  and 

Plebeians  permitted. 
444.  Tribuni  Militum  witji  Consular  power. 
443.  Institution  of  Censorship. 

440.  Famine  at  Rome.     Proefectus  Annonse  appointed. 
438.  Inhabitants  of  Fidencd  revolt, 
426.   War  with  Veii.     Fidence  destroyed. 
421.  Number  of  Quaestors  increased  from  two  to  four. 
407.  Truce  with  Veii  (made  425)  expires. 
406.  Pay  decreed  to  the  soldiers  by  the  Senate  for  the  first 

time. 
405.  Siege  of  Veii.     It  lasts  tm  years;  ends  396,  Veii  being  taken 

by  Camillus. 
899.  A  pestilence  at  Rome. — 398.  An  embassy  sent  to  consult  the 

Oracle  at  Delphi. 
391.  Camillus  banished.     Gauls  enter  Etruria. 
390.  Rome  taken  by  the  Gauls.     Romans  defeated  at  the  battle  of 

Allia.     Camillus  recalled,  and  appointed  Dictator. 
367.  Licinian  laws  passed.    One  of  the  Consuls  to  be  chosen  from 

the  Plebeians.     Camillus  conquers  the  Gauls. 
365.  Death  of  Camillus. 
861.  Invasion  of  the  Gauls.     T.  Manlius  kills  a  Gaul  in  single 

combat,  and  is  surnamed  Torquatus. 
856.  First    Plebeian    Dictator    elected.  —  351.    First    Plebeian 

Censor. 
348.  Treaty  with  Carthage  renewed. 
343.  First  Samnite  War.     Valerius  defeats  the  Samnites. 
340.  Latin  War. 
337.  First  Plebeian  Prsetor. 
326.  Second  Samnite  War. 
321.  Roman   army  surrendered  to  the  Samnites   at   the  Caudint 

Forks,  and  sent  under  the  yoke. 
300.  Lex  Ogulnia  passed,  increasing  the  number  of  Pontiffs  and 

Augurs. 
298.   Third  Samnite  War.     Samnites  defeated  at  Bovianum  and  at 

Volaterrce,  by  the  Etruscans. 
295.  Battle  of  Sentinum ;    Samnites,  Umbrians,  Etruscans,   and 

Gauls  defeated. 
290.  Conclusion  of  the  Samnite  War,  which  had  lasted  hfty-three 

years. 


/Iv/MAN    CHRONOLOGY,  183 

B.C. 

281.  Pyrrhus  arrives  m  Italy  to  assist  the  Tarentines  against  the 
Romans. 

280,  Romans  defeated  by  Pyrrhus  near  Heracleia ;  and,  279, 
near  Asculum. 

278.  Pyrrhus  in  Sicily.     Romans  successful  in  Southern  Italy. 

275.   Pyrrhus  totally  defeated  near  Beneventum, 

272.  War  in  Southern  Italy  concluded. 

2Q4:.*The  First  Punic  War.  Cons.  Claudius  crosses  over  into  Si- 
cily and  defeats  the  Carthaginians  and  Syracusans. 

262.  Agrigentum  taken  after  a  siege  of  seven  months. 

260.  Fifth  year  of  the  First  Punic  War.  Duilius,  the  Consul, 
gains  a  naval  victory  over  the  Carthaginians. 

256.   The  Romans  victorious  in  Africa. 

255.  Regulus,  in  Africa,  takes  Tunis  and  overcomes  the  Cartha- 
ginians, but  is  afterwards  defeated  and  taken  prisoner. 

250.  Fifteenth  year  of  the  war.  —  Great  victory  of  Metellus  at 
Panormus.     Regulus  sent  to  Rome  to  solicit  peace. 

247.  IIamilcar  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  Carthaginians. 
Hannibal  born. 

241.  Twenty-fourth  and  last  year  of  the  First  Punic  War.  — Naval 
victory  of  C.  Lutatius,  off  ihQ  Ji^gates.  Peace  made  with 
the  Carthaginians.     Sicily  becomes  a  Roman  province. 

229.  Death  of  Hamilcar  in  Spain.      He  is  succeeded  by  Has- 

DRUBAL, 

225.   War  with  the  Gauls.     Fourth  and  last  year  of  the  war,  222. 
219.   Hannibal  takes  Saguntum,  and  winters  at  Carthago  Nova. 
218.*S€co7id  Punic  War.  —  Hannibal  reaches  Italy  from  Spain  in 

five  months.     He  defeats  the  Romans  at  the  battles  of  the 

Ticinus   and   the    Trehia.      Scipio    carries    on    the    war   in 

Spain. 
217.  Hannibal  defeats  Flaminius  at  the  battle  of  the  Trasymene 

Lake,  and  marches  into  Apulia. 
216.   Romans  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Cannot. 
215.  Marckllus  overcomes  Hannibal  near  Nola.     The  Scipios 

successful  in  Spain. 
212.  Seventh  year  of  the  war.  —  Hannibal  takes  Tarentum,  and 

Marcellus  takes  Syracuse.      Tlie  two  Scipios  defeated  in 

Spain. 
208.  The  two  consuls  are  defeated  by  Hannibal  near  Venusia. 

Hasdrubal  crosses  the  Pyrenees  and  winters  in  Gaul. 
207.  Hasdrubal  marches  into  Italy,  is  defeated  on  the  Metaurus^ 

and  slain. 
206.   Scipio  becomes  master  of  Spain.  — 204.   Hannibal  worsted 

near  Croton.     Scipio  crosses  over  into  Africa. 
203.  Carthaginians  defeated,  Syphax  taken  prisoner.     IIannibai; 

leaves  Italy  for  Africa. 
202    Scipio  defeats  Hannibal  at  the  decisive  haUle  of  Zama. 


184  ROMAN    CHRONOLOGY. 

B  C. 

201.*  Eighieenth  and  last  year  of  the  Second  Punic  War.      Peac« 
with  Carthage. 

200.  War  renewed  with  Philip  of  Macedon. 

197.   Philip  defeated  ^y  Flaminius  at  the  battle  of  Cyiioscephala^ 
and  peace  concluded. 

]96.   Fhiuiinius  proclaims  the  independence  of  Greece. 

191.  War  with  Antiochus,  who  is  defeated  at  Tliet-mopijlce. 

190.   L.  Scipio,  the  consul,  crosses  into  Asia  and  defeats  Antio- 
chus at  the  battle  of  Magnesia. 

183.   Death  of  Hannibal  and  of  Scipio  Africanus  (exact  date 
not  settled). 

171.  War  with  Perseus. 

168.  Fourth  and  last  year  of  the  war.      Perseus  defeated  by 
^MiLius  Paulus  at  the  battle  of  Pydna. 

149.   Third  Punic  War.  —  The  Consuls  land  in  Africa. 

\^Q.* Fourth  and  last  year  of  the  Third  Punic  War. —  Carthage  dc 
stroyed  by  Scipio. 

143.  Numantine  War  commenced. — 140,  138  and  137.  Numantioes 
successful. 

133.  Numantia  taken  and  destroyed  by  Scipio. 

129.  Death  of  Scipio  Africanus  (set.  56).     Death  of  C.  Grac- 
chus, 121. 

111.  Jugurthine  War.  — 106.  Sixth  and  last  year,  Jugurtha  cap 
tured,  Marius  commander. 

102.   Battle  of  Aqum  Sextice. — Marius  defeats  the  Teutones.     Ser- 
vile War  arises  in  Sicily. 

101.   Marius  and  Catulus,    Pro-con.,  defeat  the  CimhH  at  Campi 
Raudii. 
90.  Marsic   or  Social  War.  —  89.  Romans  successful,  Asculum 

taken. 
SS.*E?id  of  the  Marsic  War.     Sulla  appointed  to  command  the 
army  against  Mitiiridates,  which  occasions  the  civil  war 
of   Marius  and  Sulla.     Sulla  marches  upon  Rome,  pro- 
scribes Marius  and  his  party. 
87.  Sulla  crosses  into   Greece  to  conduct  the  war.     Marius 
and  Cinna,  the  Consul,  enter  Rome  and  murder  their  oppo- 
nents. 
86.   Marius  dies  (aet.  seventy).     War  continued  against  Mith- 

RiDATES.     Archelaus  defeated  in  Bceotia. 
84.   Mithridates  and  Sulla  conclude  a  peace. 
83.  Sulla  returns  to  Italy  and  continues  the  civil  war  against 

the  party  of  Marius.     The  Capitol  burnt. 
82.  Sulla,  victorious,  is  appointed  Dictator.      Praneste  cap- 
tured. 
78.   Death  of  Sulla  (s&t.  sixty). 

75.   P.  Servilius  Vatja,  the  Pro-consul  (sent  against  the  Pirata 
on  the  S.  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  78),  conquers  the  Isauriana. 


ROMAN     CHRONOLOGY.  185 

B.r. 

""4    War  ivilh  Mithridates  renewed.     LucuUus  appointed  general. 

78  Mithridates  defeated  by  Lucullus,  near  Cyzicus,  Com- 
mencement of  the  war  in  Italy  against  the  Gladiators  under 
Spartacus. 

71.  Mithridatic  War  continued.  Mithridates  flees  into  Armenia, 
to  Tigranes.  Spartacus,  the  leader  of  the  Gladiators,  de- 
feated. 

69.  Lucullus  invades  Armenia,  and  defeats  Tioranes- 

60.  Mithridatic  War  intrusted  to  Cn.  Pompeius. 
65.  Catiline's  first  conspiracy. 

63.  Death  of  Mithridates.     Catiline's  second  compirmy  disco- 
vered and  crushed  by  Cicero  the  Consul. 
62.  Catiline  defeated  and  slain. 

61.  PoMPEius,  having  returned  to  Italy,  triumphs- 

60.  C.  J.  CiESAR  victorious  in  Spain.      C^sar,  Pompeius,  and 

Crassus  establish  the  first  Triumvirate. 
f58.  Cesar  undertakes  his  first  campaign  in  GauL     Defeats  the 

Belgoj,  57 ;  crosses  the  Rhine,  and  invades  Britain^  55 ;  second. 

expedition  into  Biitain,  54, 
54.  Crassus  marches  against  the  Parthians.  —  53-    Defeat  and 

death  of  Crassus. 
51.  Cjesar  subjugates  Gaul,  his  ninth  campaign- 
49.  Commencement   of  the    Civil  War   between   Pompeius    and 

CyESAR. 

48.  C^SAR  lands  in  Greece,  and  defeats  Pompeius  at  the  battle  of 

Pharsalus.     Pompeius  murdered  before  Alexandria  {a&t.  58). 

Alexandrine  War. 
47.   CAESAR,  Dictator,   concludes  the  Alexandrine  War;    marches 

into  Pontus,  and  conquers  Pjiarnaces. 
46.  Caesar  defeats  the  partisans  of  Pompeius  at  the  battle  of 

IViapstis.     He  reforms  the  Calendar- 
45.   Battle  of  Mtmda  m  ^^bXvl.     C-esar  defeats  the  sons  of  Pom- 
peius, and  is  made  Consul  for  ten  years,  and  Dictatjr  for 

life. 
44.   Caesar  .assassinated,  on  the  15th  of  March  (let.  fifty-six)- 

Civil  War  of  Mutina  against  Antony. 
43.  Second  Triumvirate  formed  by  Octavianus,  Antonius,  and 

Lepidus. 
42.   War  in   Greece.     Battle  of  Philippi,  and  death  of  Cassius. 

Second  battle  of  Philippi,  and  death  of  Brutus. 
^>6.  Defeat  of  Sex.  Pompeius.     Lepidus  ceases  to  be  a  Triumvir. 
34.  Dalmatians  defeated. 
33.  A  rupture  takes  place  between  Octavianus  and  Antonius, 

and  both  prepare  for  war. 
;]1.   Antonius  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Actium,  2d  of  Sept. 
'.)0.*Death  of  Antonius  (a9t.  fifty-one)  and  Cleopatra.     Egypt  be- 

mmes  a  B.oman  promnce.      Octaviani^s  solt.  ruler  of  the 
16^- 


186  R  O  xM  A  N     C  H  11  O  N  O  L  O  G  Y. 

B.C. 

Roman  Empire.     He  returns  to  Rome  from  the  East,  and 
celebrates  three  triumphs,  Dalmatian,  Actian,  Alexandrine. 

27.  OcTAViANUs  takes  the  title  of  Augustus,  and  accepts  the 
government  for  ten  years. 

25.  The  Temple  of  Janus  shut  a  second  time. 

23.  Death  of  Mabcellus. 

20.   Ambassadors  sent  to  Rome  from  India. 

12    Death  of  Agrippa. 

10.  Augustus  returns  to  Rome  from  Gaul,  -with  Drusus  and  Ti- 
berius. 
9.  Drusus  sent  against  the  Germans.     Dies. 

A.D. 

4.  Tiberius  adopted  by  Augustus,  and  sent  to  carry  on  war 
against  the  Germans. 

12.  Tiberius  returns  to  Rome  from  Germany,  and  triumphs. 

14.  Census  taken,  the  citizens  are  4,197,000.  Augustus  dies  at 
Nola  in  Campania  (tet.  seventy-six),  and  is  succeeded  by  Ti- 
berius (set.  fifty-six). 

16.  Germanicus  continues  the  icar  in  Germany,  and  triumphs, 
17.     Returns  to  Rome. 

19.  Germanicus  visits  Egypt,  and  returns  to  Syria.  Dies  (set. 
thirty-four).     The  Jews  are  banished  from  Italy. 

23.   Death  of  Drusus,  poisoned  by  Sejanus. 

31.   Fall  and  execution  of  Se.janus. 

33.   Agrippina  and  her  son  Drusus  are  put  to  death. 

37.  Death  of  Tiberius  (set.  seventy-eight),  having  reigned  twenty- 
three  years.     Caligula  succeeds  (aet.  twenty-five). 

39.  Herod  Antipas,  tetrarch  of  Galihee,  deposed,  and  succeeded 
by  Agrippa. 

40.  Caligula  in  Gaul.  His  expedition  to  the  ocean.  He  returns 
to  Rome. 

41.  Caligula  slain  (get.  twenty-nine).  Claudius  succeeds  (get. 
fifty).     Germans  defeated  by  Galba. 

43.  Expedition  of  Claudius  into  Britain.     Returns  to  Rome,  and 

triumphs,  44. 
49.  Claudius  (his  wife  Messalina  having  been  put  to  death  in  48) 

marries  Agiuppina. 
54.  Claudius  poisoned  (£et.  sixty-three) ;  reigned  fourteen  years. 

Nkro  succeeds  (get.  seventeen). 
69.  Agrippina,  the  mother  of  Nero,  is  murdered  by  his  order. 

61.  Insurrection  in  Britain  under  Boadicea. 

62.  Nebo  divorces  Octavia,  and  marries  PoppiEA  Sabina,  tlio 
wife  of  0th  0. 

64.  Great  fire  at  Rome.     First  persecution  of  the  Christians. 

65.  Piso's  conspiracy  discovered  and  suppressed. 

66.  Nero  goes  to  Greece.     The  Jewish  war  begins. 

67.  Nero  in  Greece.     Vespasian  conducts  the  Jewish  War. 


ROMAN    CHRONOLOGY.  187 

A.©. 

68.  Nero  kills  himself  (set.  thirty).     Galea  succeeds. 

69.  Galea  slain,  Jan.  15  (set.  seventy-three).  Otho  succeeds, 
Jan.  15,  and  died  April  16  (aet.  thirty-six).  Vitellius  pro- 
claimed at  Cologne,  Jan.  2 ;  reigned  till  his  death,  Dec.  22 
(93t.  fifty-four).  Vespasian  (set.  sixty)  proclaimed  at  Alex- 
andria, July  1.  On  the  death  of  Galba,  the  Civil  War  be- 
tween Otho  and  Vitellius  commenced.  The  troops  of  Otho 
defeated  at  the  battle  of  Bedriacum  ;  the  generals  of  Vespa- 
sian meanwhile  invade  Italy,  take  Cremona,  and  march  upon 
Rome.     The  Capitol  burnt.     Vitellius  slain,  22d  of  Dec. 

70.*Vespasian  proceeds  to  Italy,  leaving  Titus  his  son  to  carry 
on  the  Jewish  war.  Jerusalem  taken,  after  a  siege  of  five 
months. 

71.   Triumph  of  Vespasian  and  Titus.     Temple  of  Janus  closed. 

78.  Agricola  in  Britain. 

79.  Death  of  Vespasian,  June  2B  (set.  sixty-nine).  Titus  suc- 
ceeds (set.  thirty-eight).  Second  campaign  of  Agricola  in 
Britain.     Eruption  of  Vesuvius. 

80.  Great  fire  at  Rome.  Colosseum  completed.  Third  cam- 
paign of  Agricola. 

81.  Death  of  Titus,  Sept.  13  (set.  forty).  Domitian  succeeds 
(set.  thirty).  Fourth  campaign  of  Agricola  in  Britain. 
Fifth  campaign,  82;  sixth,  83;  seventh,  84.  Agricola  re- 
called to  Rome,  85. 

96.  Domitian  slain,  Sept.  18  (set.  forty-four).     Nerva  Emperor 

(set.  sixty-three) ;  died  Jan.  25,  98  (set.  sixty-five). 
98.  Trajan  (set.  forty-one);  died  Aug.  8,  117  (set.  sixty),  having 
reigned  nineteen  years. 

117.  Hadrian  (set.  forty-two;  died  July  10,  138  (set.  sixty-two), 
having  reigned  twenty-one  years. 

138.  Antonius  Pius  (set.  fifty-one) ;  died  Mar.  7,  161  (set. 
seventy-four),  having  reigned  twenty-three  years. 

161.  M.  Aurelius  (set.  thirty-nine) ;  died  Mar.  17,  180  (set.  fifty- 
eight),  having  reigned  nineteen  years. 

180.  CoMMODUs  (set.  nineteen);  slain  Dec.  31,  193  (set.  thirty- 
one),  having  reigned  thirteen  years. 

193.  Pertinax  (set.  sixty-six);  slain  Mar.  28,  193,  having  reigned 
three  months.  Julianus  (set.  fifty-six);  reigned  from  Mar. 
28  to  June  1.  Septimus  Sea^erus  (set.  forty-six);  died 
Feb.  4,  211,  at  Eboracum,  York,  (set  sixty- four),  having 
reigned  eighteen  years. 


GREEK  INDEX. 


A. 

uyKvpa,  113. 
ayopaif  161. 
ayioves,  108. 
(ibvTov,  103. 
ahijiviaf  105. 
aO'nvaia,  107. 
*Mflvrj,  69. 
*AW;7?,  72. 
a?;^/!^,  112. 
aKdvTiov,  112. 
aKpariana,  114. 
aKp<i7roAtf,  160. 
aX/ia,  108. 
^XTjjptf,  108. 
anipiKTvoviay  102. 
avdppvcis,  106. 
avnppvu),  104. 
ai'0£:o-r;7fita,  106. 
*AvOe(TTrjpi(ljv,  165. 
avrXosy  113. 
a^/v;?,  112. 
^AnapKTiaSf  172. 
arrap)(fi,  104. 
•iraroupia,  106. 
'ATTTyXtcorj/f,  172. 
'Apy£ffr;5f,  172. 
dp^a'vioi',  115. 
apftorrayarae,  101. 
'Aprjs,  68. 
ap»7r»7pff,  103. 
upiarovj  114. 
"Aprepii,  70. 


ap')^it>v,  vo. 
'AaKXijnioi,  70. 
dffTn'j,  111. 
aTipia,  103. 
aiiXaia,  116. 
3i;A<5f,  108. 
^A(ppo6iT7},  70. 

B. 

liaatXevg,  98,  99. 
/?A//,  112. 
"Rori^poprnVf  165. 
Bopeaj,  172. 
SovXevT-^piov,  161. 
i3(;uX;J,  100. 
j3pd;3^oj,  103. 
/3a)/idj,  103. 

r. 

raptjXi(i)v,  165. 
yipovTf.gy  101, 
ytpovaia,  101. 

ra?«,  71. 
r/7,  71. 

ypapfxaTcvq,  99. 

A. 
ia(}>vr](popia,  106. 

^£tXiv(5v,  114. 

^E/TTVOV,    114. 

St\(piv,  114. 
iecfios,  103. 
S^pap^'jif  99. 
Arjpi^Tnpf  69. 


Stifxoi,  99. 
6iaiTT/Tai,  101. 
^/auAos,  108. 
difKirXovg,  114. 
6(ovt;<7ta,  106. 
Aidvvaoq,  71. 
^/a/cof,  108. 
SoKtpaaia,  101. 
J<5Xt;^of,  108. 
dSjios,  103. 
^d^jjrtia,  106. 

(^dpTTOV,   114. 

^dpu,  112. 
SovXeia,  103. 
^oDXot,  98. 

5/J(J/;(0?,    108. 


^y;t^^'  112. 
fyvuicAov,  115. 
iSibXta,  113. 
ttXwrcf,  98. 
''EKOTopPait^v,  165i 
iKaTdpPrj,  104. 
eKtiTovrap^ia,  112. 
eKKXrja'ia,  100. 
"EXa^prjiioXuhv,  165. 
fXevaivin,  106. 
epPoXoVf  113. 
gi'^c/fq,  99. 
htjSaTatf  114. 
inKJTaTTjgf  100. 
inioToXfOsy  114. 
iTTiavvfiOs,  98. 

(189) 


190 


GREEK    INDEX. 


eperaif  114 
fpCTHOl,  113. 
'Epixng,  69. 
"Epw?,  71. 
iaOr'ig,  115. 
'EoTt'a,  69. 
tvOvvj],  101. 
EfV^'^'^^fj  71. 
'En/fft'aj,  172. 
Ei>af,  172. 
((pearpis,  115. 
f0frat,  102. 

ftPopUOVf  100. 

(ipopoi,  99. 
Ewj,  71. 


Zcuf,  68. 
Zf(pvpoSf  172. 

^ijya,  113. 
^uytrat,  113. 

H. 
tjXiaia,  101. 
riXiaaTaif  101. 
tjvio^uif  111. 
"Hpa,  69. 
"Hp;?,  69. 
i]p(})a,  116. 
"H0atoTOf,  68. 


0(i\a[x7Taif  113. 
f?rtXa/iOf,  113. 
O(ivttrof,  103. 

6«py»/Ai^i'»  165. 
Oearpov,  116. 
dtonpdnoiy  104, 
0£(T{xodiTai,  98,  99. 
deffjxocpopiaf  107. 
OrjcravpdSf  103. 
(?/)rtV(rat,  113. 
Ppai'ot,  113. 


Oi;//£\>7,  116. 
OvocKdoi,  103. 
(?upf(5f,  112. 
Owpa^,  111. 

I. 
Jfp£?f,  103. 
'lepcTov,  104. 

'IHUTIOV,  115. 
"ii:T:ap)(^ot,  112. 
Jtttt/c??,  Ill,  112. 
(ffntfj/,  113. 
iorrdj,  113. 


KaiKias,  172. 
/c«A«0(ov,  107. 
KaraaTpdfiaTa,  113. 
KcKpujTria,  160. 
Arrprttat,  113. 
Kepa/ict/foj,  160. 
/cf'para,  112,  113. 
Kf'pi'fl,  104. 

«^('0V£f,  116. 
/cAtVat,  114,  115. 

KVT}[x78cS,    111.      , 

Kddopvoi,  115. 
/fotXov,  117. 

KOVTOlf    113. 
KOpvS,    111. 

KovpeuJTig,  106. 
Kpui'os,  111. 
KprjirlSeg,  115. 
Kpdx/of,  75. 
KvjStpvnTrjgf  114. 

KVVft],   111. 
KV(pit)V,   103. 

Kojrrat,  113. 

A. 

hj^iap^ot,  99. 
hdoi3o\ia,  103. 
A£x|.,  172. 


Aoyaov,  116, 
Ao«i3a^  104. 
X<50of,  111, 
A(;;^0£,  112. 
Ad;^;o?,  112. 

MaiixaKTtjpidv,  16&. 
fxdvTicg,  104. 
/<£AtTo?rr<i,  115. 
[icadKoiXa,  113. 
Mc  rayftr  1^(0)1',  165^ 

filTOlKOl,   98. 
flCTUJTTOV,  113. 

/i^pa,  104. 
fidpai,  112. 
Mouvi>;^<wi/,  165. 
jjivarj^pia,  106. 

N. 
vaiSia,  116. 
vadf,  103. 
vauap;;^;os,  114. 
v«i;raf,  114. 
vofiodiirai,  99. 
Norof,  172. 
vovfxrjvia,  166. 


^(00?,  103,  112. 

a 

o5oAdf,  115. 

'O^U(T0-£l5f,  94. 

«?af,  113. 
otVwi'OTrdAoj,  104. 
JtVrot',  112. 
oioivitrratf  104. 
oA/caJe?,  113. 
6A/:o/,  114. 
6[ji(pa\og,  111. 
oi^ctpoTrdAor,  104. 
'.nKrOdhon'jg.  103. 


hir\7Tai,  111. 
hrrXiTVS,  108. 
dp^ijaTpOf  116. 
6(7TpaKiafx6sf  102. 
ov\o)(^VTai,  104. 
ohpd,  112. 

n. 

irayKpaTiov,  109. 
7raA,7,  109. 
nu'AXaf,  69. 
Trava^ri-ata,  107. 
Tre^oi,  111. 
ffAavot,  104. 
ire\da5cg,  105. 

TTfXfKl'S,  112. 
ircXraffra^  111,  112. 
^iXrrj,  111,  112. 
•ntiiirds,  112. 
TtivTaQXov,  108. 
i:cvTr)K6vTopoi,  113, 
■KcpiKt^aXaia,  111. 
itcfiioiKoi,  98. 
TTcpiTrXovg,  114. 
ffi7^tiA<or,  113. 
iridoiyia,  106. 
jrtXot,  115. 
jrXaraj,  113. 
jrXttpat',  113. 
rrAoTa,  113. 
jrvuf,  161. 
rd^cj,  113. 
TCOiKiKrif  161. 
TtoXinapx^Sf  98,  112., 
TToXtrat,  98. 
Uoffft^fcSv,  165. 
ITotrcj^wv,  68. 
rpoSofLOSj  103. 
irp6sSpot,  100. 
?r(»d0£fftf,  115. 
rrpdvaos,  103. 
irpoJTvAata,  160, 
TrpoffiCiJviov,  116, 
irpvftvrff  113, 


GREEK    INDEX. 

npvraveta,  100. 
ffpuravcTor,  161. 
rpuruVctf,  100.     , 
npu>pa,  113. 
Jluavci^iwi/,  165. 
-nvyfifi,  108. 
TTuXc/a,  101. 
7r?p,  103. 


191 


o-avif,  103. 

CTJKOS,  103. 
crJuaTa,  104. 

GKr}vn,  116. 
llKippocpopnioVf  165, 
SK/pwj',  172. 
adXof,  108. 
STTupTtarat,  98. 
an£ipr}f  113. 
o-TTOvba/,  104. 
ardSiov,  108. 
cravodS)  103. 
OT^Xaj,  116. 
OT^X)?,  103. 
oTiYnaTa,  103. 
CToai,  161. 
(rr(5Xap;\;o?,  114. 
aroX^J,  115. 
crpaTrjyoi,  112. 
CTpamyds,  114. 
OTparid,  112. 
ffrpoyyiJXa/,  113. 
c(pev56vrjf  112. 
(T^oiviaf  113. 

T. 
ra^iapxoi*  112. 
ra'^tf,  112. 
TtpLtvos,  103. 
ripara,  104. 
TicaapdKoVTaf  102. 
To^fuftara,  112. 
rd|ov,  112. 
ro'T£icr,  113. 


Tpdnt^ai,  116, 

Tpd(pni)  113. 
rpifiiov,  115. 
TpifjpapxoSf  Hi. 
rpira,  116. 
TpdTTis,  113, 
Tpo-rroi,  113. 
Tpox^g,  103, 
Tu;^>;,  71. 

Y. 
vnipai,  113. 
hnopoXevs,  117. 
vTroSijUaTa,  115, 

0a<i/oX»7?,  115. 
^oXayl,  112. 
(pdpfxaKcv,  103. 
^dpog,  115. 
^oprtjyoij  113, 
0uy;7,  103. 
^uAat,  102. 
0vXap;;^Of,  99,  Hi 


XcipoTovia,  100, 
p^tTwr,  115. 
p^trwi/iov,  115. 
;^Xa?i'a,  115. 
;)^Xa//u?,  115. 
;^oa£,  104,  116. 
;^dff,  106. 
;;taTv<^,  103. 
;^opaydj,  117. 
;^i3rpo£,  106. 


\^f](f)i<Tixaj  100. 
■i^^ot,  100. 
i/^tAo/,  111, 

12. 

fi^fToi',  161, 


INDEX. 


A. 

AbacQS,  142. 
Absyrtus,  86. 
Academia,  161. 
Academic  Sect,  159. 
Acarnania,  38. 
Accensi,  122. 
Acestes,  95. 
Achaia,  40. 
Acheron,  75. 
Achilles,  91. 
Actuariae,  138. 
Acropolis,  160. 
Adraetus,  75. 
Adonis,  76. 
Adrastus,  87. 
^acus,  76. 
^dium,  140. 
iEdiles,  122. 

Curules,  122. 

Cereales,  122. 

-^etes,  85. 
-^geon,  77. 
^gyptus,  64,  65. 
Aello,  79. 
.^neas,  95. 
JEolia,  49. 
-^olus,  70. 
^olian  league,  52. 
^rarium,  120. 
^schines,  148. 
iEschylus,  144. 
^sculapius,  70. 
^son,  85. 


iEsop,  149. 
-aEtolia,  38. 
Africa,  63. 

Propria,  66. 

Africus,  172. 
Agamemnon,  89,  92. 
Agenor,  86. 
Agger,  135. 
Aglaia,  72. 
Agora,  144. 
Ajax,  92. 
Albania,  57. 
Alcaeus,  129. 
Alcestis,  76. 
Alcyone,  82. 
Alcman,  130. 
Alecto,  71. 
Alexander,  89,  95. 
Alveolus,  126. 
Alveus,  126. 
Amazones,  76. 
Ammon,  70. 
Amor,  71. 
Amphiaraus,  87. 
Amphitrite,  70. 
Amphorae,  140. 
Anacreon,  129. 
Anaxandrides,  129. 
Anchises,  95. 
Ancile,  129. 
Andabatae,  132. 
Andromache,  95. 
Andronicus   (Livius), 
154. 


Augustus  Clavus,  1X9, 
Annuli,  139. 
Antenor,  95. 
AntigSne,  87. 
Antilochus,  92. 
Antiphanes,  129. 
Apis,  70. 

Apodyterium,  141 
Apollo,  69. 
Apparitores,  122. 
Apulia,  29. 
Aqueducts,  164. 
Aquilo,  172. 
Aquitani,  17. 
Aquitania,  18. 
Arabia,  55. 
Araros,  145. 
Arcadia,  42. 
Arches,    Triumphal, 

164. 
Archimedes,  149. 
Arena,  131. 
Argo,  85. 
Argolis,  41. 
Argonautae,  85. 
Argus,  80,  85. 
Aria,  60. 
Ariadne,  76, 
Arianus,  60. 
Aries,  136. 
Aristophanes,  145. 
Aristotle,  151. 
Armenia,  57. 

Minor,  51. 

(192) 


INDEX. 


198 


Arx,  163. 
Asia,  46. 

Minor,  47. 

(Seven  Churches 

of),  52. 
Assaracus,  88. 
Assyria,  59. 
Astraea,  70. 
Atabulus,  172. 
Athamas,  85. 
Athena,  69. 
Atlas,  76. 
Atrium,  140. 
Atropos,  75. 
Attica,  40. 
Atticus,  157. 
Augures,  127. 
Augurium,  127. 
Aulaea,  116. 
Aurora,  71. 
Auspices,  127. 
Auspicium,  127. 
Ausonia,  23. 
Auster,  172. 
Automedon,  92. 
Auxilia,  135. 

B. 

Babylonia,  58. 
Bacchus,  71. 
Bacchylides,  146. 
Bactria,  60. 
Bactriana,  60. 
Baetica,  16. 
Ballista,  136. 
Balneae,  141. 
Balneator,  141. 
.  Basilicas,  163. 
Batanaea,  55. 
Belgae,  17. 
Bellerophon,  76. 
Bellona,  71. 

17 


Bion,  146. 
Bithynia,  48. 
Boeotia,  39.  • 
Bona  Dea,  130. 
Boreas,  172. 
Briareus,  77. 
Briseis,  90. 
Britannia,  44. 
Bruttium,  30. 
Buccina,  135. 

C. 

Cadmea,  86. 
Cadmus,  86. 
Caesar,  155. 
Caesars,  the  Twelve,169, 
Calcei,  139. 
Calceus  lunatus,  120. 
Calchas,  89,  92. 
Caldarium,  141. 
Calends,  167. 
Caligae,  139. 
Calliope,  73. 
Calypso,  77. 
Campania,  29. 
Campi,  162. 
Campus  Martins,  162. 
Cappadocia,  51. 
Capitolium,  163. 
Capaneus,  87. 
Caria,  50. 
Carina,  113. 
Carmania,  61. 
Carni,  26. 
Cassandra,  89,  95. 
Castor,  77. 
Castra,  136. 
Catapulta,  136. 
Cato,  158. 
Catullus,  153. 
Catervarii,  132. 
Caurus,  172. 


Carea,  117,  132. 

Celaeno,  79,  82. 
Celsus,  158. 
Celtso,  17. 
Censores,  123. 
Centauri,  77. 
Centuriae,  134. 
Centuriones,  135. 
Ceramicus,  160. 
Cerberus,  77. 
Ceres,  69. 
Cestus,  108. 
Chaldaea,  58. 
Charon,  77. 
Chimaera,  76. 
Chiron,  77. 
Chlamys,  135. 
Chryseis,  90. 
Chryses,  90. 
Cicero,  156,  157. 
Cilicia,  50. 
Cingulum,  138. 
Circe,  77. 
Circi,  163. 
Circus,  163. 
Cistae,  121. 
Clepsydrae,  167. 
Clio,  73. 
Clipeus,  134. 
Clotho,  75. 
Cocytus,  77. 
Cognomen,  143. 
Coelus,  75. 
Coena,  139. 
Cohortes,  134. 
Colchis,  56. 
Columella,  158. 
Columns,  164. 
Colyttus,  160. 
Comitia,  121. 

Curiata,  121. 

Centuriatfc,  121. 


194 


INDEX. 


Camitia  Tributa,  122. 
Comissatio,  140. 
Compluvium,  140. 
Conscription,  133. 
Consules,  123. 
Co-optatio,  128. 
Cornu,  135. 
Coroebus,  96. 
Corinthia,  42. 
Corona  Civica,  136. 
Castrensis, 

137. 

Muralis,  137. 

Obsidionalis, 

137. 

■ Graminea,  137. 

Oleagina,  137. 

Corvi,  138. 
Cothurni,  117,  139. 
Crater,  140. 
Crates,  145. 
Cratinus,  145. 
Creon,  88. 
Cucullus,  139. 
Cunei,  132. 
Cuneus,  136. 
Cupido,  71. 
Curatores,  123. 
Curiae  (Senate-houses), 

164. 
Curiae,  118. 
Curio,  118. 
Curiones,  128. 
Cursus,  131. 
Curtius,  156. 
Cybele,  83. 
Cyclades,  43. 
Cyclopes,  78. 
Cynic  Sect,  159. 
Cynosarges,  161. 
Cyprus,  52. 
Cyrenaic  Sect,  159. 


1). 

Dacia,  32.  * 
Daedalus,  78. 
Damnum,  126. 
Danaides,  84. 
Daphne,  78. 
Dardanus,  88. 
Decemviri,  128. 
Decretum,  120. 
Decuriae,  134. 
Deiphobus,  88,  96. 
Delta,  64. 
Demosthenes,  148. 
Deucalion,  78. 
Diana,  70. 
Dictator,  124. 
Dies  Fasti,  172. 

Festi,  130. 

Nefasti,  172. 

Profesti,  130. 

Dike,  72. 

Diodorus      (Siculus), 

147. 
Diomedes,  92. 
Dionysius,  147. 
Dionysus,  71. 
Theatre  of, 

161. 
Diphilus,  145. 
Dirae,  71. 
Dis,  72. 
Discessio,  120« 
Dithyrambs,  144. 
Dormitoria,  141. 
Dorian  (States),  51. 
Doris,  38,  50. 
Dryades,  73. 

E. 

Eleatic  School,  159. 
Electra,  82,  93. 


Eliac  School,  159. 
Elis,  40. 
Elysium,  78. 
Emeriti,  133. 
Endymion,  78. 
Ennius,  152. 
Ensis,  135. 
Epaphus,  80. 
Epeus,  91. 
Epicharmus,  145. 
Epicurean  Sect,  lb9» 
Epicurus,  151. 
Epirus,  38. 
Equites,  118,  133. 
Erato,  73. 
Erebus,  78. 
Erechtheum,  160. 
Eretriac  School,  159. 
Ericthonius,  88. 
Eristic  School,  159, 
Essedarii,  132. 
Eteocles,  87. 
Etruria,  26. 
Eubulus,  145. 
Euclid,  149. 
Eumenides,  71. 
Eunomia,  72. 
Euphrosyne,  72. 
Eupolis,  145. 
Euripides,  145. 
Europe,  13. 
Europa,  78,  86. 
Eurus,  172. 
Euryale,  79. 
Eurydice,  81. 
Eurysaces,  92. 
Eurystheus,  79. 
Eurytion,  82. 
Euterpe,  73. 
Eutropius,  156. 
Evocati,  134. 
Extispices,  12S. 


INDEX. 


195 


Pamilia,  143. 
Fates,  171. 
Fauni,  71. 
Favonius,  172. 
Fenestras,  141. 
Ferentarii,  134. 
Ferise,  130. 
Feretrum,  142. 
Fetiales,  128. 
Flaccus  (Valerius),  152. 
Flamines,  128. 
Flora,  71. 
Floras,  156. 
FoUis,  141. 
Fora,  162. 
Fores,  140. 
For  tun  a,  71. 
Forum,  162. 
Fossa,  135. 
Fratres  Arvales,  129. 
Frigidarium,  141. 
Fritillus,  142. 
Funditores,  134. 
Furise,  71,  171. 

G. 
Gaea,  71. 
Galatia,  51. 
Galea,  134. 
Galen,  148. 
Galerus,  139. 
Galilee,  54. 
Galli,  129. 
Gallia,  17. 

Belgica,  19. 

Cisalpina,  25. 

Togata,  25. 

Cispadana,  25. 

Transpadana,  26, 

Ganymede,  72. 
«^ie,  71. 


Gedrosia,  61. 
Gellius  (Aulus),  158. 
Genius,  71. 
Gentes,  143. 
German ia,  20. 
Gigantes,  79. 
Gladiatorii,  131. 
Gladius,  135. 
Glaucus,  96. 
Globus,  136. 
Gorgones,  79. 
Graeci.a,  34. 
Gratiae,  72,  170. 
Gymnicum(Certamen) 
131. 

H. 

Hades,  72. 
Haemon,  88. 
Hamadryades,  73. 
Harpagones,  138. 
Ilarpyiae,  79. 
Haruspices,  128. 
Hast£e,  135. 
Hastati,  134,  136. 
Heaven,  75. 
Hebe,  72. 
Hecate,  72. 
Hecaton  Cheires,  84. 
Hector,  96. 
Hecuba,  88,  96. 
Helena,  89,  93. 
Helenus,  91,  96. 
Helios,  72. 
Hell  (rivers  of),  171. 

(judges  of),  171. 

Hellas,  34. 
Helle,  85. 
Heptanomis,  64. 
Heraclidae,  79. 
Heraclitean  Sect,  159. 
Hercules,  70. 


Hercules   (labours   of), 

170. 
Herodotus,  146. 
Hesiod,  144. 
Hesione,  88. 
Hesperia,  23. 
Hesperides,  79. 
Hipparchus,  163. 
Hippocrates,  148. 
Hippodamia,  82. 
Hippolyte,  80. 
Hippomedon,  87. 
Hispania,  15. 
,  Histria,  26. 
Homer,  144. 
Horace,  153. 
Horse,  72,  171. 
Hostia,  130. 
Hyades,  80. 
Hygea,  72. 
Hygiea,  72. 
Hymen,  72. 
Hymenseus,  72. 
Hyperion,  80. 
Hypermnestra,  84 
Hypocaustra,  141. 
Hyrcania,  60. 


lapetus,  80. 
lapyx,  172. 
Iberia,  56. 
Ides,  167. 
Idomeneus,  93. 
Ignobiles,  119. 
Ignominia,  126. 
Illyricum,  22. 
Illyris  Graeca,  33. 
Ilus,  88. 
Imagines,  142. 
Iraperator,  137. 
Impluvium,  141, 


196 


INDEX. 


India,  62. 
Infamia,  126. 
Infulae,  130. 
Intercessio,  125. 
lo,  80. 
Ionia,  49. 

Ionian  (States),  51. 
Iphigcnia,  90. 
Irene,  72. 
Iris,  72. 
Isaeus,  148. 
Isauria,  50. 
Isis,  72. 
Ismene,  87. 
Tsocrates,  147. 
Italia,  23. 
lulus,  95. 
fxion,  80,  83. 

J. 
Janua,  140. 
Janus,  72. 

Jason,  80,  85. 
Jentaculum,  139. 
Jocasta,  87. 
JudaBa,  53,  54. 
Judicia,  126. 
Juno,  69. 
Jupiter,  68. 
Jus  Imaginum,  119. 
Justin,  156. 
Juvenal,  154. 
Juventas,  72. 

L. 

Labdacus,  86. 
Lacerna,  139. 
Lachesis,  75. 
Laconia,  41. 
Laeunaria,  141. 
Lsena,  139. 
Laius,  86. 


Lanista,  131. 
Laocoon,  91. 
Laodamas,  88. 
Laodamia,  97. 
Laodice,  89,  93. 
Laoraedon,  88. 
Lapithse,  80. 
Laquearia,  141. 
Lares,  73. 
Latium,  28. 
Latona,  80. 
Latrunculi,  142. 
Latus  clavus,  120. 
Laudatio,  142. 
Latin  us,  95. 
Lavinia,  95. 
Lecti,  139. 
Lectica,  142. 
Lean,  80. 
Legati,  135. 
Legio,  134,  136. 
Lethe,  80. 
Libatio,  104. 
Libitinarii,  142. 
Libya,  66. 
Lictores,  122. 
Liguria,  25. 
Limen,  140. 
Limnae,  160. 
Lituus,  128,  135. 
Livy,  155. 
Locris,  38. 
Longinus,  150. 
Lorica,  134. 
Luean,  152. 
Lucania,  30. 
Lueeres,  118. 
Lucian,  150. 
Lucretius,  154. 
Ludi  Cireenses,  131. 
Ludus  Trojae,  131. 
Lugdunensis,  18. 


Luna,  73. 
Lupercalia,  130. 
Luperci,  129. 
Lusitania,  16. 
Lustratio,  130. 
Lycaonia,  51. 
Lyceum,  161. 
Lycia,  50. 
Lycomedes,  91, 
Lydia,  49. 
Lysias,  147. 

M. 

Macedonia,  32. 
Machaon,  93. 
Maeonia,  49. 
Magister  Equitum,  124. 
Maia,  80,  82. 
Manes,  73. 
Manipuli,  134. 
Manumissio,  119. 
Man  us  (Ferreae),  138. 
Mars,  68. 

Gradivus,  129. 

Martial,  155. 
Matron  alia,  130. 
Mauritania,  67. 
Maxiinus    (Valerius), 

156. 
Medea,  81,  86. 
Media,  59. 
Medusa,  79. 
Megaera,  71. 
Megalesia,  130. 
Megaric  School,  159. 
Megaris,  40. 
Melite,  160. 
Melpomene,  73. 
Meninon,  96. 
Menoetius,  85,  93. 
Menander,  145, 
Menglaus,  89,  93. 


INDEX. 


197 


Mensa,  140. 
Mercurius,  69. 
Meriones,  93 
Merope,  82,  87. 
Mesopotamia,  57. 
Messenia,  41. 
Meton,  165. 
Mezentiugi,  95. 
Minerva,  69. 
Minos,  81. 
Mirmillones,  132. 
Mnemosyne,  84. 
Moesia,  31. 
Moirae,  75. 
Mola  salsa,  130. 
Momus,  73. 
Mopsus,  85. 
Morpheus,  73. 
Mors,  126. 
Moschus,  146. 
Mulcta,  126. 
Musae,  73,  170. 
Mysia,  49. 

N. 
Naiades,  73. 
Napaeae,  73. 
Narbonensis,  17. 
Narcissus,  81. 
Nations  (Seven  Hea- 
then), 55. 
Naumachia,  131. 
Naves  Longae,  138. 

Prastoria,  138. 

Nemesis,  73. 
Neoptolemus,  91,  93. 
Nephele,  85. 
Nepos  (Cornelius),  155. 
Neptune,  68. 
Nereides,  73. 
Nereus,  73. 
Nestor,  93. 

17 -5f 


NiSbe,  81. 
Nobiles,  119. 
Nomen,  143. 
Nones,  167. 
Noricum,  21. 
Novendiale,  143. 
Numidia,  67. 
Nundinae,  172. 
Nymphae,  73. 

0. 
Oceanides,  73. 
Oeeanus,  74. 
Ocreae,  134. 
Ocypete,  79. 
Odeum,  161. 
(Edipus,  86. 
(Enotria,  23. 
Oileus,  85,  92. 
Onerariae,  138. 
Ops,  83. 
Optimates,  119. 
Optiones,  135. 
Orbis,  136. 
Orchestra,  116,  132. 
Orcus,  72. 
Oreades,  73. 
Orestes,  90. 
Orion,  81. 
Orpheus,  81. 
Osiris,  74. 
Ostium,  140. 
Ovatio,  137. 
Ovid,  153. 
Ovile,  121. 

P. 

Paenula,  139. 
Palaestina,  53. 
Pales,  74. 
Palilia,  130. 
Palla,  139. 


Palladium,  88,  91. 
Paludamentum,  135. 
Pamphylia,  50. 
Pan,  74. 

Pancratium,  109. 
Pandarus,  96. 
Pandora,  81. 
Pandroseum,  160. 
Pannonia,  22. 
Pantheon,  161. 
Pantheum,  163. 
P#phlagonia,  49. 
Parca),  75,  171. 
Parietes,  141. 
Parilia,  130. 
Paris,  88,  96. 
Parma,  135. 
Parthenon,  160. 
Parthenopaeus,  87. 
Parthia,  60. 
Pater  Patratus,  128. 
Patres,  119. 

Minorum    Gen. 

tium,  120. 

Major  urn    Gen- 
tium, 120. 

Conscripti,  120, 

Patricii,  118. 
Patroclus,  90,  93. 
Pausanias,  149. 

Pax,  74. 
Pegasus,  81. 
Peleus,  89. 
Pelops,  92. 
Penates,  74. 
Penelope,  94. 
Pentathlon,  131. 
Peraea,  55. 
Periboea,  87. 
Pericles,  147. 
Peripatetic  Sect,  159. 
Peristylium,  141. 


198 

Persgphone,  74. 
Perseus,  82. 
Persia,  60. 
Persius,  154. 
PersonsD,  117,  132. 
Phaedrus,  155. 
Phaethon,  82. 
Philemon,  145. 
Philoctetes,  91,  93. 
Plilegethon,  82. 
Phocis,  39. 
Phoebe,  74. 
Phoebus,  74. 
Phoenicia,  53. 
Phoenix,  93. 
Phorcys,  83. 
Phormus,  145. 
Phrixus,  85. 
Phrygia,  51. 
Picenum,  27. 
Pierides,  82. 
Pila,  135,  141. 
Pilani,  134. 

Pileus,  127.  139. 

Pindar,  146. 

Pirithoos,  82,  85. 

Pisidia,  50. 

Plato,  151. 

Plautus,  154. 

Plebei,  118. 

Pliny,  157. 

(Younger),  157. 

Plutarch,  147. 

Pluto,  72,  74. 

Plutus,  74. 

Pnyx,  160,  161. 

Pocula,  140. 

Poecile,  161. 

Podarces,  88. 

Polites,  89. 

PoUicem  premere,  132. 

vertere,  132. 


INDEX. 

Pollux,  82. 
Polybius,  147. 
Poly  bus,  87. 
Polydorus,  86,  89,  96. 
Polyhymnia,  73. 
Polymnestor,  96. 
Polynices,  87. 
Polyphemus,  82,  94. 
Polyxena,  89,  96. 
Pomona,  74. 
Pontifex      Maximus, 

127. 
Pontifices,  127. 
Pontus,  49. 
Popa,  130. 
Populares,  119. 
Porticoes,  161,  163. 
Posidippus,  145. 

Postes,  140. 

Potameides,  73. 
Praecones,  122. 

Pra3fectus,  124,  135. 
classii,  138. 

Prseficae,  142. 

Praelusio,  131. 

Praenomen,  143. 

Praetor,  124. 

Peregrinus,  124. 

Urbanus,  124. 

Prandium,  139. 

Priam,  88,  96. 

Priapus,  74. 

Principes,  134,  136. 

Pro-Consul,  124. 

Procurator,  125. 

Proletarii,  133. 

Prometheus,  82. 

Propertius,  153. 

Pro-Prgetor,  125. 

Propylsea,  160. 

Prora,  113. 

Proscenium,  116 


Proserpina,  74. 
Proteus,  75. 
Prytaneum,  161. 
Psyche,  82. 
Pulpitum,  116. 
Puppis,  113. 
Pyra,  142. 
Pyrrhus,  91,  94. 
Pythagoras,  150. 
Python,  82. 

Q. 
Quadriremes,  113, 138. 
Quaesitores,  126. 
Quaestores,  125. 
Quintilian,  158. 
Quinqueremes,  113,138i 
Quinquertium,  131. 


Ramnenses,  118. 

Ramnes,  118. 

Refuge  (Cities  of),  55. 

Retiarii,  132. 

Rex  Sacrificulus,  128. 

Rhadamanthus,  83. 

Rhaetia,  21. 

Rhea,  83. 

Rhesus,  90. 

Roads,  164. 

Rogus,  142. 

Roma,  162. 

Rome   (Hills  of),  165. 

(Kings    of), 

168. 
Rorarii,  134. 
Rostrum,  113. 
Rudes,  131. 

S. 
Sabinum,  27. 
Sacrificia,  129. 


INDEX. 


gages  (Seven),  169. 
Sagittarii,  134. 
Sagum,  135. 
Salii,  129. 
Sallust,  155. 
Samaria,  54. 
Samnites,  132. 
Samnium,  28. 
Sappho,  145. 
Sarmatia,  32. 
Asiatica, 

56. 
Sarpedon,  97. 
Saturnalia,  130. 
Saturn  ia,  23. 
Saturnus,  75. 
Satyri,  83. 
Scena,  116. 
Scenici,  131,  132. 
Sceptic  Sect,  159. 
Scribae,  122. 
Scutum,  134. 
Scythia,  61. 
Selene,  73. 
Sella  Curulis,  124. 
Senatores,  119. 
Senatus,  119,  120. 
Consultum, 

120. 
Seneca,  154,  157. 
Septemtrio,  172. 
Servi,  119. 
Servitus,  126. 
Ship    (Tackling    of, 

Ac),  113. 
Sibylline  Books,  128. 
Sica,  132. 
Sicilia,  30. 
Sicyonia,  42. 
Signa,  136. 
Signiferi,  135. 
Sileni,  83. 


Silenus,  75. 
Silius,  152. 
Silvanus,  75. 
Simonides,  146. 
Sinon,  91. 
Sirenes,  83. 
Sisyphus,  83. 
Socci,  139. 
Socrates,  151. 
Socratic  School,  159. 
Sogdiana,  61. 
Sola,  141. 
Solaria,  167. 
Sol,  72. 
Soleae,  139. 
Sophocles,  144. 
Sparti,  86. 
Spectio,  127. 
Sphynx,  83,  87. 
Sporades,  44. 
Stadium,  161. 
Statins,  152. 
Sterope,  82. 
Stesichorus,  146. 
Stheno,  79. 
Sthenelus,  94. 
Stoic  Sect,  159. 
Stola,  139. 
Strabo,  149. 
Strigiles,  141. 
Strymo,  88. 
Styx,  83. 
Subucula,  138. 
Subitarii,  133. 
Subsolanus,  172. 
Succenturiones,  135. 
Suetonius,  156. 
Suovetaurilia,  130. 
Susiana.,  59. 
Susis,  59. 
Syria,  53. 
Syrinx,  74. 


T. 

Tabella,  121. 
Tacitus,  156. 
Tali,  141. 
Talio,  126. 
Talthybius,  94. 
Tantalus,  83. 
Tarraconensis,  16* 
Tartarus,  72,  83. 
Taygete,  82. 
Tecmessa,  92. 
Telamon,  85,  92. 
Tellus,  71. 
Templa,  130. 
Temples  at  Rome,  163. 
Tepidarium,  141. 
Terpsichore,  73. 
Terence,  154.         , 
Terra,  71. 
Tesserae,  142. 
Testudo,  136. 
Teucer,  88,  94. 
Thales,  150. 
Thalia,  72,  73. 
Theatres  at  Rome,  163. 
Theatrum,  116,  132. 
Thebais,  65. 
Themis,  75. 
Theocritus,  146. 
Thermae,  141,  163. 
Theseus    (Temple    of) 

161. 
Thessalia,  37. 
Thetis,  75. 
Thracia,  34. 
Thraces,  132. 
Thorax,  134. 
Thucydides,  146. 
Tibullus,  153. 
Timocles,  145. 
Tiphys,  85. 


200 

INDEX. 

Tiresias,  87. 

Tunica,  138. 

Vesta,  69. 

Tisiphone,  71. 

Palmata,  137. 

Vestibulum,  140,  141. 

Titanes,  84. 

Laticlavia,  138 

.  Vise,  162,  164. 

Titienses,  118. 

Angusticlavia, 

Via  Sacra,  162. 

Tityus,  83. 

138. 

Viatores,  122. 

Toga,  138. 

Turmae,  1.34. 

Victima,  130. 

Picta,  137,  139. 

Turnus,  95. 

Vincula,  126. 

Praetexta,   123, 

Turris,  136. 

Vindelicia,  21. 

139. 

Tuscia,  26. 

Vinea,  136. 

Virilis,  139. 

Tydeus,  87. 

Vinum,  140. 

Candida,  138. 

Tydides,  92. 

Virgil,  152. 

Trabea,  128. 

Typon,  84. 

Virgines  Vestales,  12lt. 

Transtra,  113. 

Tyrrhenia,  26. 

Vitruvius,  158. 

Transvectio  Equitiim, 

Vittae,  130. 

130. 

U. 

Vota,  129. 

Triarii,  134,  136. 

Ulysses,  94. 

Votiva  Tabula,  129. 

Tribuni  Plebis,  125. 

Umbo,  138. 

Vulcan,  68. 

Militum,  126, 

Umbria,  27. 

135. 

Urania,  73. 

W. 

Tribus,  118. 

Uranus,  75. 

Winds  (Temple  of),  161. 

Trinacria,  30. 

Wines,  140. 

Trinundinura,  121. 

V. 

Tripolitana,  66. 

Vallum,  135. 

X. 

Triremes,  113,  138. 

Varro,  158. 

Xenophon,  147. 

Triton,  84. 

Velites,  134. 

Xystus,  109. 

Troas,  49. 

Venatio,  131. 

Troilus,  89,  97. 

Venetia,  26. 

Z. 

Tros,  88. 

Venti,  172. 

Zeno,  151. 

Tuba,  135. 

Venus,  70. 

Zephyrus,  172. 

Tumultuarii,  133. 

Vertumnus,  75. 

Zeus  (Temple  of),  181. 

THE    END. 


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